L  I  E)  R.AR.Y 

OF   THL 

UN  I  VER.5ITY 

or    ILLINOIS 

3TO 


\\\  Wo  r«  "^^ 


iOO^*  3tantandvangJ,3in 


Return  this  book  on  or  before  the 
Latest  Date  stamped  below. 


University  of  Illinois  Library 


t., 


9 


•^     O  <".*   " 


0""  2 


H^K    1113 

'■■"7     1    '■   iOuf 


y 


W 


K0\ 


■X  W«W 


'JUN  0  3  ]90 
JULl 


21S83 


C  5  200S 


L161  — 1141 


BULLETIN  NO.  38 


BUREAU  OF  EDUCATIONAL  RESEARCH 
COLLEGE  OF  EDUCATION 


THE  TECHNIQUES  OF  EDUCATIONAL 
RESEARCH 

By 

Walter  S.  Monroe 

Director,  Bureau  of  Educational  Research 

and 

Max  D.  Engelhart 
-^  sistant,  Bureau  of  Educational  Research 


PRICE  50  CENTS 


PUBLISHED  BY  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS,  URBANA 
''  ^  1928 


PREFACE 

The  interest  exhibited  in  the  bulletin,  "Reporting  Educational 
Research,"  published  by  the  Bureau  of  Educational  Research,  March, 
1925,  indicated  that  a  more  extensive  treatment  of  the  techniques  of 
educational  research  would  be  welcome.  With  the  exception  of  Chapter 
\T,  Reporting  Educational  Research,  the  present  bulletin  consists 
largely  of  references  to  illustrations  of  research  procedures.  This  type 
of  treatment  has  been  employed  because  it  is  believed  that  graduate 
students,  or  other  persons  desiring  to  learn  how  to  carry  on  educational 
research,  would  profit  more  from  noting  the  procedures  employed  by 
previous  investigators  than  by  reading  an  exposition  of  research 
techniques  which  would  necessarily  be  somewhat  abstract.  There  is  a 
bibliography  for  each  chapter  except  the  last.  However,  the  bibliog- 
raphies for  those  chapters  that  deal  with  research  techniques  contain 
relatively  few  references.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  as  yet  there  have 
been  relatively  few  attempts  by  writers  to  deal  with  non-statistical 
procedures. 

Mr.  J.  A.  Clark,  a  former  Assistant  in  the  Bureau  of  Educational 
Research,  contributed  to  the  preparation  of  this  bulletin  by  preparing 
a  preliminary  list  of  illustrative  references  which  were  mimeographed 
and  placed  in  the  hands  of  graduate  students  taking  a  seminar  in 
educational  research.  These  students  contributed  a  number  of  valu- 
able suggestions  and  several  additional  references.  The  authors  are 
glad  to  acknowledge  their  indebtedness  to  all  who  have  contributed  to 
the  project. 

Walter  S.  Monroe,  Director. 

Xovember  2,  1927. 


Digitized  by  the  Internet  Archive 

in  2011  with  funding  from 

University  of  Illinois  Urbana-Champaign 


http://www.archive.org/details/techniquesofeduc38monr 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

Page 

Preface     3 

Chapter  I.  Introduction 7 

Chapter  II.  The  Problem  and  Its  Definition 14 

Chapter  III.  Collecting  Data 27 

Chapter  IV.  Analyzing,  Organizing,  and  Summarizing  Data  .  42 

Chapter  V.  Determining  Conclusions 49 

Chapter  VI.  Reporting  Educational  Research 57 


^m  CHAPTER  I 

^M  INTRODUCTION 

^^B  What  is  educational  research?  A  brief  formal  definition  of  edu- 
cational research  cannot  describe  the  many  and  varied  activities  of 
investigators  in  the  field  of  education ;  it  can  only  give  an  epitomized 
description  of  the  general  character  of  their  activities.  The  following 
definition  is  given  to  suggest  the  point  of  view  of  the  authors  in  pre- 
paring this  bulletin.  It  is  not  expected  that  the  reading  of  the  state- 
ment will  result  in  an  adequate  understanding  of  educational  research. 
One  who  desires  to  understand  this  procedure  must  acquaint  himself 
with  the  techniques  employed  in  representative  studies,  or  better  engage 
in  educational  research. 

Educational  research  is  the  name  for  a  type  of  procedure  employed 
in  answering  thought  questions^  about  education ;  that  is,  questions  for 
which  answers  must  be  manufactured  by  reflective  thinking.  This 
procedure  is  one  in  which  the  best  data  obtainable  are  used  and  the 
thinking  is  critical.  At  times  a  research  worker  may  be  concerned 
with  fact  questions  answerable  by  routine  clerical  activities.  If  the 
answers  to  such  questions  are  needed  as  a  means  of  dealing  with 
thought  questions,  such  activities  are  a  phase  of  educational  research. 

The  ultimate  purpose  of  all  educational  research  is  the  discovery 
of  procedures,  rules,  and  principles  relating  to  the  various  aspects  of 
education.  Or  to  express  it  in  a  somewhat  different  way,  the  function 
of  educational  research  is  to  determine  what  we  should  do  or  attempt 
to  do  in  educating  children  and  adults.  However,  many  of  the  activ- 
ities of  research  workers  have  as  their  immediate  purpose  the  determi- 
nation of  what  is,  or  what  has  been,  rather  than  what  should  be.  This 
is  not  inappropriate  provided  the  securing  of  this  information  is  looked 
upon  as  a  means  for  determining  what  should  be. 

The  general  plan  of  educational  research.  Educational  research 
begins  with  the  formulation  of  the  problem,  usually  in  the  form  of  a 


'The  phrase  "thought  question"  is  used  in  contrast  to  "fact  question."  As  the  terms 
are  used  here,  a  fact  question  is  one  for  which  there  is  a  ready-made  answer,  either  in  the 
possession  of  the  investigator  or  easily  obtainable  by  him.  In  some  instances  the  answer  is 
obtainable  in  the  required  form;  in  others  some  organization  or  calculations  are  necessary. 
Hence,  fact  questions  merge  into  thought  questions  and  it  is  not  possible  to  specify  a  definite 
line  of  demarcation  between.  In  general,  if  the  calculations  are  simple  and  routine  in  char- 
acter, the  investigator  may  be  said  to  be  dealing  with  a  fact  question.  If  the  work  of  hand- 
'ing  the  collected  information  involves  decisions  and  relatively  complex  calculation,  the  use 
of  the  adjective  "thought"  is  justified. 

[7] 


8  Bulletin  No.  38 

concisely  stated  question  or  series  of  related  questions.  The  culmina- 
tion of  this  first  step  is  the  '"definition  of  the  problem."  The  second 
step  is  to  collect  the  data  that  the  problem  calls  for.  This  is  followed 
by  an  analysis,  organization,  and  summary  of  the  data  so  as  to  make 
their  meaning  apparent.  The  final  step  is  deriving  answers  to  the 
questions  of  the  problem  from  the  data  and  expressing  these  answers 
in  concise  terms. 

Although  the  procedure  of  educational  research  has  been  described 
in  terms  of  four  steps,  it  is  not  a  mechanical  process.  No  two  studies 
are  exactly  alike.  Variation  rather  than  uniformity  characterizes  edu- 
cational research.  The  four  steps  described  vary  in  prominence.  In 
some  studies  the  "analysis,  organization,  and  summary  of  data"  is 
relatively  simple ;  in  others  it  involves  elaborate  and  intricate  statistical 
methods.  In  some  cases  "collecting  data"  is  largely  a  clerical  matter; 
in  others  it  requires  a  highly  trained  investigator.  However,  the  four 
steps  furnish  a  helpful  analysis  of  educational  research. 

The  purpose  of  this  bulletin.  This  bulletin  is  designed  to  assist 
the  reader  in  understanding  the  techniques  of  educational  research.  A 
chapter  is  devoted  to  each  of  the  four  steps  or  phases  mentioned  in 
the  preceding  paragraphs.  Each  of  these  chapters  begins  with  a  brief 
exposition  of  the  phase  of  educational  research.  This  is  followed  by  a 
list  of  references  to  reports  that  furnish  illustrations  of  the  techniques 
employed  by  investigators.  Each  reference  is  accompanied  by  an 
annotation  that  describes  the  technique  briefly  but  in  most  cases  the 
reader  will  need  to  consult  the  report  in  order  to  understand  the 
technique  fully.-  In  addition,  there  is  a  carefully  selected  bibliography 
in  which  techniques  are  considered.  The  final  chapter  is  devoted  to 
"reporting  educational  research"  which  is  here  considered  as  a  separate 
phase. 

Descriptions  of  technique  in  reports  of  research.  In  reporting 
educational  research,  the  writer  usually  describes  how  he  accomplished 
some  phases  of  his  work,  but  frequently  important  techniques  are  not 
mentioned.  For  example,  in  reporting  a  historical  study  it  is  unusual 
to  describe  the  methods  employed  in  locating  the  sources  and  the; 
methods  of  handling  the  facts  obtained.  On  the  other  hand,  the  report! 
of  an  experimental  investigation  to  determine  the  relative  merits  of' 
two  methods  of  teaching  a  subject  usually  contains  a  detailed  descrip-j' 
tion  of  the  procedure  followed  in  collecting  the  data. 

t| 

-The  reader  should  bear  in  mind  that  these  reports  of  educational  research  may  not  be|| 
perfect.  In  some  cases  they  are  not  in  agreement  with  the  statements  by  the  authors  of  thi.'j 
bulletin. 


fl 


Techniques  of  Educational  Research  9 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

General  Discussion  of  Educational  Research 

Alexander,    Carter.     "Opportunities    for    Research    in    Educational 

Finance,"  Educational  Administration  and  Supervision,  9 :  209-22, 

April,  1923.   Also  in  The  Phi  Delta  Kappan,  5  :5-8,  April,  1923. 

The  man  starting  a  research  problem  should  ask  himself,  "Is  there 
demonstrable  need  for  research  in  this  field  ?" — "Just  what  problems  in  it 
most  need  to  be  investigated,  and  why?'"- — "What  methods  should  be  used?" 
— "For  what  problems  in  it  am  I  so  well  equipped  personally  that  I  can 
reasonably  hope  for  success?"  The  article  discusses  several  important 
problems  worthy  of  investigation  in  the  field  of  educational  finance. 

Bay,  James  C.     "The  Training  of  a  Research  Worker  in  Education," 

School  and  Society,  25  :274-78,  March,  1927. 

A  discussion  of  the  qualifications  of  the  research  worker  is  given. 
Some  of  these  qualifications  are  "a  mastery  of  detailed  processes  of 
analysis,"  "possession  of  definite  standards  of  judgment,"  and  "familiarity 
with  materials  and  methods."  Some  of  the  training  should  comprise 
philosophy,  mathematical  analysis,  statistics,  and  scientific  attitude. 

Brooks,  Fowler  D.    "Criteria  of  Educational  Research,"  ScJiool  and 

Society,  18:724-29,  December,  1923. 

Seven  criteria  are  given  for  the  evaluation  of  educational  research, 
the  application  of  which  would  reveal  that  much  so-called  educational 
research  is  not  research  at  all.  The  author  gives  a  detailed  analysis  of 
typical  examples  of  faulty  technique. 

Charters,  W.  W.     "Pure  Research  and  Practical  Research,"  Journal 

of  Educational  Research,  12:95-101,  September,  1925. 

The  pure  research  worker  may  pick  his  problems  without  regard  to 
social  use.  The  practical  investigator  finds  his  problems  "localized  within 
practice,  and  in  the  end  they  must  again  be  applied  to  the  improvement  of 
practice."  The  article  closes  with  the  listing  of  five  steps  of  practical 
research. 

Columbia   Associates   in    Philosophy.    An  Introduction   to   Reflective 
Thinking.    Boston :  Houghton  Mifflin  Company,  1923.    342  p. 

A  clear  knowledge  of  reflective  thinking  is  essential  to  the  research 
worker  in  any  field.  The  investigator  in  education  will  find  this  book  an 
invaluable  aid  in  clarifying  his  own  ideas  as  to  the  nature  of  reflective 
thinking  and  its  use  in  the  solution  of  a  research  problem.  Chapter  13 
contains  a  summary  in  which  certain  "tests  of  thought  and  beliefs"  are 
given. 

Courtis,  S.  A.,  and  Packer,  P.  C.     "Educational  Research,"  Journal 
of  Educational  Research,  1  :5-19,  January,  1920. 

An  analogy  is  drawn  between  education  and  warfare,  with  the  research 
department  serving  as  scouts.  The  watchful,  continuous  collection  of  facts 
is  called  the  "survey"  fvniction  of  educational  research.  The  reporting  of 
progress  is  designated  the  "appraisal"  function  of  research.     The  nature  of 


10  Bulletin  No.  38 

these  two  functions  is  discussed,  and  the  article  closes  with  emphasis  on 
the  importance  of  research  to  education. 

CuBBERLY,  E.  P.,  Dearborn,  W.  F.,  Monroe,  Paul,  and  Thorndike, 

E.  L.    "Research  Within  the  Field  of  Education,  its  Organization 

and   Encouragement,"    The  School  Review  Monograph,  Vol.    1, 

1911,  p.  1-54. 

The  rapid  expansion  of  educational  research  in  the  last  few  years 
makes  this  series  of  articles  of  especial  significance.  At  that  time  Cubberly 
indicated  three  major  fields  in  need  of  investigation,  those  of  finance, 
county  reorganization,  and  units  of  cost.  Dearborn  and  Thorndike  pre- 
sented pleas  for  experimentation  and  quantitative  measurement,  while  Paul 
Monroe  asked  for  cooperation  in  research. 

Dewey,  John.    How  We  Think.    Boston :  D.  C.  Heath  and  Company, 

1910.  224  p. 

The  steps  in  the  solution  of  a  research  problem  are  so  closely  those 
of  reflective  thinking,  that  the  investigator  will  do  well  to  clarify  in  his 
own  mind  his  ideas  as  to  the  nature  of  the  thinking  process.  This  book 
may  be  designated  as  one  of  the  classics  in  its  field. 

Hosic,  J.  F.     "Assuming  the  Major  Premise,"  Journal  of  Educational 

Method,  2  :229-30,  February,  1923.    An  editorial. 

This  is  a  protest  against  the  practice  of  making  hasty  generalizations 
from  insufficient  data.  The  author  emphasizes  the  value  of  suspended 
judgment. 

JuDD,  Charles  H.     "Educational  Research  and  the  American  School 

Program,"  The  Educational  Record,  4:165-77,  October,  1923. 

Educational  research  is  the  typical  American  method  of  solving  the 
problem  of  school  control.  Comparisons  are  made  between  American  and 
European  methods  of  solving  school  problems.  A  short  history  of  educa- 
tional research  is  given,  and  the  article  closes  with  a  discussion  of  needed 
investigations. 

JuDD,  Charles  H.     "Research  in  Elementary  Education,"  Journal  of 

Educational  Psychology,  17:217-25,  April,  1926. 

The  author  emphasizes  the  need  of  research  in  fundamentals,  rather 
than  in  the  details  of  present  practice.  Much  of  present  educational 
research  is  superficial,  and  is  characterized  by  routine.  Some  of  the  fields 
in  need  of  fundamental  productive  investigations  are  suggested. 

JuDD,  Charles  H.,  Briggs,  Thomas  H.,  Kelly,  F.  J.,  and  Courtis, 

S.    A.      "Research    in    Education,"    Fifteenth    Yearbook    of    the 

National  Society   of   College    Teachers   of  Education.     Chicago: 

University  of  Chicago  Press,  1926,  p.  56-93. 

This  is  a  series  of  four  short  articles  which  indicate  the  need  of 
research  in  the  fields  of  elementarj^  secondary,  and  college  education. 
The  article  by  Judd  is  the  same  as  that  given  in  the  preceding  reference. 
The  last  article,  that  by  Courtis,  is  a  discussion  of  the  development  of 
ability  in  research. 


Techniques  of  Educational  Research  11 

Kelly,  F.  J.  "Scientific  Method  in  College  Administration  and  Col- 
lege Teaching,"  School  and  Society,  20 :  390-96,  September,  1924. 

The  author  discusses  the  need  for  educational  research  on  the  college 
level,  particularly  in  the  fields  of  evaluation  of  the  results  of  college  teach- 
ing, rating  of  college  teachers,  and  budget  making. 

Koos,  Leonard  V.  "Research  Problems  in  Collegiate  Education," 
School  and  Society,  17:169-174,  February,  1923. 

This  is  an  interesting  discussion  of  the  need  for  educational  research 
on  the  college  level.  "Recent  opportunities  for  observing  a  large  amount 
of  classroom  procedure  in  colleges,  .  .  .  have  renewed  the  writer's 
conviction  that  the  whole  realm  of  method  in  college  instruction  can  be 
made  a  vast  field  of  valuable  experimentation." 

Light,  U.  L.  "Muddling  through  from  Guess  to  Science,"  Educa- 
tional Review,  68  :5-9,  June,  1924. 

This  article  gives  a  discussion  of  the  progress  in  educational  practice 
through  the  development  of  educational  research.  The  author  concludes 
his  article  with  a  presentation  of  problems  in  need  of  investigation. 

McCall,  William  A.  Hozv  to  Experiment  in  Education.  New  York: 
Macmillan  Company,  1923.   Chapter  L 

Hypothesis  and  experimentation  are  given  as  the  third  stage  in  the 
search  for  truth.  The  author  states  that  scientific  educational  research 
may  be  grouped  conveniently  into  three  major  divisions  :  descriptive,  experi- 
mental, and  causal  investigations.  The  purpose  of  each  of  these  types  is 
discussed,  and  the  nature  of  experimental  investigations  is  gone  into  in 
some  detail. 

Mead,  A.  R.  "List  of  Possible  Studies  and  Researches  in  Supervised 
Student-Teaching,"  Educational  Administration  and  Supervision, 
11:355-358,  August,  1925. 

Those  interested  in  research  in  the  field  of  teacher  training  will  find 
this  article  of  interest.     Fortj^-eight  problems  are  listed. 

Monroe,  Walter  S.  "Service  of  Educational  Research  to  School 
Administrators,"  The  American  School  Board  Journal,  70:37-39, 
122,  125,  April,  1925. 

The  reader  is  first  given  a  definition  of  educational  research.  This  is 
followed  by  a  brief  discussion  of  the  relative  merits  of  certain  procedures. 
Increase  in  effiqiency  in  education,  and  not  decrease  in  expense,  should  be 
the  goal  of  educational  research.  The  article  goes  on  with  a  discussion  of 
questions  in  need  of  solution,  and  concludes  with  emphasis  on  the  value  of 
a  critical  attitude  on  the  part  of  the  research  worker. 

National  Committee  on  Research  in  Secondary  Education.  "An  Out- 
line of  Methods  of  Research  with  Suggestions  for  High  School 
Principals  and  Teachers,"   U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education  Bidletin, 


12  Bulletin-  No.  38 

1926,   No.  24.    Washington :   Government   Printing  Office,    1927. 
63  p. 

The  research  worker  in  education  will  find  this  bulletin  helpful  in 
several  ways.  The  need  of  educational  research  is  pointed  out.  This  is 
followed  by  a  brief  discussion  of  the  nature  of  educational  research. 
Qualifications  of  the  research  worker  in  education  are  outlined.  The  gen- 
eral procedures  of  research  are  outlined,  and  a  discussion  of  the  question- 
naire is  given.  A  brief  outline  is  given  with  reference  to  the  reporting  of 
educational  research.  The  next  topic  is  a  summary  of  suggestions  and 
directions.  The  bulletin  closes  with  a  list  of  research  agencies  available 
to  the  principal  and  teacher. 

Newlox,  Jesse  H.     "What  Research  can  do  for  the  Superintendent," 
Journal  of  Educational  Research,  8:106-12,  September,  1923. 

The  school  superintendent  should  present  policies  to  his  school  board 
which  are  based  on  the  findings  of  educational  research.  The  author 
emphasizes  the  importance  of  suspended  judgment,  understandable  reports, 
and  of  sound  philosophy  in  educational  research. 

Reeder,  W.  G.    Hozv  to  Write  a  Thesis.    Bloomington,  Ilhnois :  PubUc 
School  PubHshing  Company,  1925.    132  p. 

This  little  book  contains  much  information  that  would  be  of  service 
in  writing  a  thesis.  Illustrations  of  certain  details  of  form  will  prove 
useful,  but  the  graduate  student  should  be  sure  that  these  details  are  in 
harmony  with  the  regulations  of  his  institution. 

Thiesex,  W.  W,   "Recent  Progress  in  Educational  Research,"  Journal 
of  Educational  Research,  8:  301-14,  November,  1923. 

x\  discussion  is  given  of  some  recent  researches  in  such  fields  as 
testing,  statistical  methods,  curricula,  remedial  measures,  learning,  reten- 
tion, and  administration.  Attention  is  called  to  opportunities  for  further 
investigations. 

Trow,  Willi.\m  C.    Scientific  Method  in  Education.     Boston :  Hough- 
ton ]\lifflin  Company,  1925.    159  p. 

The  reader  will  find  this  a  rather  general  discussion  of  the  scientific 
method.  The  latter  part  of  the  book  is  devoted  to  the  scientific  method  as 
applied  to  educational  problems. 

"What  is  Research?"   The  School  Review,  34:488-89,  September,  1926. 
An  editorial. 

The  reader  is  told  that  much  that  is  labeled  educational  research  is 
merely  descriptive  accounts  of  what  is  going  on  in  the  high  school.  Some 
idea  of  the  nature  of  real  educational  research  may  be  gained  from  the 
following  quotations,  "True  and  genuine  research  is  one  of  the  finest  per- 
formances of  human  intelligence  and  ingenuity."  The  title  "research" 
should  be  reserved  "for  publications  which  contribute  to  the  understanding 
of  fundamental  principles." 


Techkiques  of  Educational  Research  13 

Woody,  Clifford.  "The  Values  of  Educational  Research  to  the  Class- 
room Teacher,"  Journal  of  Educational  Research,  26:172-178, 
October,  1927. 

Research  on  the  part  of  the  classroom  teacher  is  of  fundamental 
significance  to  education.  "Extended  experiments  dealing  with  teaching 
practices  in  their  natural  situations  are  needed."  Participation  in  research 
is  said  to  result  in  superior  teaching,  in  professional  growth,  in  under- 
standing of  current  literature,  in  the  establishment  of  teaching  as  a  pro- 
fession, and  in  certain  monetary  and  spiritual  rewards. 


CHAPTER  II 
THE  PROBLEM  AND  ITS  DEFINITION 

How  should  a  problem  be  expressed?  A  problem  should  be  ex- 
pressed either  in  the  form  of  a  question  or  so  that  the  question  to  be 
answered  is  clearly  apparent.  A  statement  of  the  topic  is  not  satisfac- 
tory. It  merely  names  the  particular  held  in  which  a  problem  is  to  be 
formulated.  The  title  of  a  thesis  is  usually  a  topic  and  not  a  statement 
of  the  problem. 

The  definition  of  a  problem.  To  define  a  problem  means  to  specify 
it  in  detail  and  with  precision.  Each  question  and  subordinate  ques- 
tion to  be  answered  is  to  be  specified.  The  limits  of  the  investigation 
must  be  determined.  Frequently,  it  is  necessary  to  review  previous 
studies  in  order  to  determine  just  what  is  to  be  done.  Sometimes  it  is 
necessary  to  formulate  the  point  of  view  or  educational  theory  on 
which  the  investigation  is  to  be  based.  If  certain  assumptions  are 
made,  they  must  be  explicit!}'  noted. 

Relation  of  definition  of  problem  to  other  phases  of  educational 
research.  The  definition  of  the  problem  affords  a  basis  for  the  sub- 
sequent phases  of  educational  research.  It  is  the  guide  for  the  collect- 
ing of  data.  The  data  are  to  be  analyzed,  organized,  and  summarized 
so  as  to  be  most  useful  for  answering  the  questions  specified  in  the 
definition  of  the  problem  and  the  conclusion  is  merely  a  statement  of 
the  answers  resulting  from  the  investigation. 

The  basic  importance  of  the  problem  and  its  definition  indicates 
that  they  should  appear  early  in  a  report  of  educational  research. 
However,  it  is  not  unusual  to  find  reports  in  which  a  large  amount  of 
introductory  material  precedes  the  statement  of  the  problem.  Occasion- 
ally this  may  be  desirable  but  frequently  a  critical  reader  wonders  if 
the  formulation  of  this  introductory  material  did  not  precede  the 
formulation  of  the  problem. 

ILLUSTRATIVE  REFERENCES 

A.     Statement  of  the  problem.    The  general  statement  of  the  problem 
appears  in  several  forms  : 

1.  A  question  or  questions: 

a.  A  single  question. 

Germane,  Charles  E.     "Outlining  and  Summarizing  Com- 
pared with  Re-Reading  as  Methods  of  Studying,"  The 

[14] 


Techniques  of  Educational  Research  15 

Twentieth    Yearbook   of   the  National  Society  for   the 

Study    of   Education,   Part   II.      Bloomington,    Illinois : 

Public  School  Publishing  Company,  1921,  p.  103-14. 

After  a  very  brief  paragraph  stating  that  there  are  no 
scientific  data  on  the  subject,  the  problem  is  stated  as  follows: 
"What  is  the  value 'of  making  a  'corrected  summary-outline'  of 
an  article  as  compared  with  re-reading  the  same  article  for  the 
same  length  of  time?"  This  is  followed  by  a  definition  of 
"corrected    summary   outline"    and   method   of    experimentation. 

BuTTERWECK,  JosEPH  S.  "The  problem  of  teaching  High 
School  Pupils  How^  to  Study,"  Teachers  College,  Colum- 
bia University  Contributions  to  Education,  No.  237.  New 
York :  Bureau  of  Publications,  Columbia  University, 
1926.   116  p. 

At  the  end  of  Chapter  I,  after  a  discussion  of  several 
related  topics,  the  problem  is  stated  under  the  caption,  "The 
Problem  of  This  Investigation." 

Rosen,  Esther  Katz.  "A  Comparison  of  the  Intellectual 
and  Educational  Status  of  Neurotic  and  Normal  Children 
in  Public  Schools,"  Teachers  College,  Columbia  Univer- 
sity Contributions  to  Education,  No.  188.  New  York : 
Bureau  of  Publications,  Columbia  University,  1925.  51  p. 

The  question  to  be  answered  is  on  page  3,  under  the  caption, 
"Purpose  of  the  Study." 

b.  Several  questions. 

ScATES,  Douglas  E.  "A  Study  of  High-School  and  First- 
Year  University  Grades,"  School  Review,  32:182-92, 
March,  1924. 

The  problem  is  stated  in  the  first  paragraph  on  page  182  by 
means  of  four  questions  as  follows :  1.  "To  what  extent  does 
good  work  in  the  high  school  predict  good  work  in  the  first  year 
of  college?  ...  2.  What  would  be  the  effect  of  raising  the 
high  school  scholarship  average  required  for  admission  by  the 
University  of  Chicago?  ...  3.  How  can  first  year  college 
grades  be  made  of  particular  interest  and  value  to  the  high  school 
principal?  ...  4.  Which  first  year  students  should  be  given 
special  study  by  the  University?" 

Powers,  Samuel  Ralph.  "A  Diagnostic  Study  of  the 
Subject  Matter  of  High  School  Chemistry,"  Teachers 
College,  Columbia  University  Contributions  to  Educa- 
tion, No.  149.  New  York :  Bureau  of  Publications,  Co- 
lumbia University,  1924.    84  p. 

The  problem  is  stated  on  page  3  in  terms  of  nine  specific 
questions  the  author  proposes  to  answer. 


16  Bulletin  No.  38 

Graves,  Katharine  B.  "The  Influence  of  Specialized 
Training  on  Tests  of  General  Intelligence,"  Teachers 
College,  Columbia  University  Contributions  to  Education, 
No.  143.  Xew  York:  Bureau  of  Publications,  Columbia 
University,  1924.   78  p. 

The  problem  is  stated  on  page  3  in  the  form  of  four  ques- 
tions. 

c.  A  single  question  followed  by  several  sub-questions. 

WooDRiNG,  Maxie  Nave.  "A  Study  of  the  Quality  of  Eng- 
lish in  Latin  Translations,"  Teachers  College,  Columbia 
University  Contributions  to  Education,  No.  187.  New 
York :  Bureau  of  Publications,  Columbia  University, 
1925.  84  p. 

After  a  discussion  of  the  status,  time  required,  and  objec- 
tives of  Latin  in  the  secondar}'  schools,  the  problem  is  stated  as 
follows : 

"Do  Latin  students  use  correct  and  effective  English  in 
Latin  translations? 

"The  question  immediately  resolves  into  several  related 
questions  : 

"1.  What  is  the  quality  of  the  English  used  in  Latin  trans- 
lations? 

"2.  How  does  the  Enghsh  in  Latin  translations  compare 
with  the  English  in  English  compositions? 

"3.  How  effective  are  the  words  used  in  Latin  translations? 

"4.  What  errors  in  grammar,  rhetoric,  and  spelling  occur  in 
the  English  of  Latin  translations?"  ^hI 

Stoxe,  Cliff  Winfield.    "Arithmetical  Abilities  and  Some 
Factors  Determining  Them,"  Teachers  College,  Colut 
bia  University  Contributions  to  Education,  No.  19.  Ne 
York :    Bureau    of    Publications,    Columbia    Universitj 
1908.    101  p. 

A  general  question  is  first  asked  in  the  opening  paragraph 
followed  by  two  questions  of  a  more  particular  nature. 

Perrix,  H.  Ambrose.  "The  Local  Status  and  Activities  of 
General  Supervision  in  City  Schools,"  Elementary  School 
Journal,  26:345-55,  January,  1926. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  first  paragraph,  the  reader  is  given 
a  statement  of  the  question  followed  by  two  sub-questions. 


Techniques  of  Educational  Research  .  17 

2.  Declarative  statement. 

a.  A  single  statement. 

Anibel,  Fred  G.  ''Comparative  Efifectiveness  of  the  Lec- 
ture-Demonstration and  Individual  Laborator}-  Alethod," 
Journal  of  Educational  Research,  13  :355-65,  ^lay,  1926. 

The  reader  is  given  a  direct  statement  of  the  problem  in 
the  opening  sentence :  "The  purpose  of  this  study  was  to  de- 
termine scientifically  through  the  use  of  objective  data  just  how 
the  results  of  the  lecture-demonstration  method  of  presenting 
natural  science  subject  matter  compared  with  the  individual  labo- 
ratorj'  method  of  presenting  exactly  the  same  material."  This 
sentence  is  followed  b}-  further  definition  of  the  problem. 

Hertzberg,  Oscar  Edward.  "A  Comparative  Study  of 
Different  Methods  Used  in  Teaching  Beginners  to 
Write,"  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University  Contri- 
butions to  Education,  No.  214.  New  York :  Bureau  of 
Publications,  Columbia  University,  1926.    60  p. 

After  a  brief  discussion  of  the  work  of  other  investigators, 
the  following  statement  of  the  problem  is  given  at  the  bottom 
of  page  2 :  "The  purpose  of  the  present  study  was  to  obtain 
results  which  would  adequately  measure  the  effectiveness  of  the 
direct  learning  method  of  teaching  beginners  to  write  as  con- 
trasted with  the  mechanical  device  method." 

b.  A  single  statement  containing  several  phases. 

Brooks,  Fowler  Dell.  "Changes  in  Mental  Traits  with 
Age  Determined  by  Annual  Retests,"  Teachers  College, 
Columbia  University  Contributions  to  Education,  No.  116. 
New  York:  Bureau  of  Publications,  Columbia  Univer- 
sity, 1921.   86  p. 

After  a  short  discussion  of  the  work  of  Thorndike  on  the 
same  topic,  the  reader  is  given  a  rather  general  statement  of  the 
problem  : 

"This  investigation  seeks  to  find  out  what  changes  in  mental 
traits  take  place  with  age,  and  it  seeks  to  find  them  out  in  the 
only  way  the)-  can  be  found  out  accuratel)- — by  discovering  what 
changes  actually  do  take  place  in  the  same  individuals  from  one 
year  to  another."  This  is  followed  by  two  correlated  problems  : 
"(1)  to  investigate  the  correlation  between  mental  functions  at 
different  ages  of  the  same  individuals,  and  (2)  to  study  the 
relation  of  intellectual  ability  to  rate  of  improvement  over  a 
longer  period  of  time  than  has  heretofore  been  reported  upon." 


18  Bulletin  No.  38 

Allen,  I,  M.  "Improving  the  Professional  Status  of  Teach- 
ers," Elementary  School  Journal,  26:430-40,  February, 
1926. 

In  the  second  paragraph,  the  reader  is  given  a  statement  of 
the  problem  consisting  of  three  separate  purposes. 

Anderson,  Earl  Williams.  "The  Teacher's  Contract  and 
Other  Legal  Phases  of  Teacher  Status,"  Teachers  Col- 
lege, Columbia  University  Contributions  to  Education, 
No.  246.  New  York :  Bureau  of  Publications,  Columbia 
University,  1927.     180  p. 

After  a  brief  discussion  as  to  its  importance,  the  problem 
is  stated  on  page  1  as  undertaking  four  things. 

c.  A  series  of  complete  statements. 

Andersen,  William  Niclaus.  "Determination  of  a  Spell- 
ing Vocabulary  Based  on  Written  Correspondence,"  Uni- 
versity of  lozva  Studies  in  Education,  Vol.  2,  No.  1.  Iowa 
City:  University  of  Iowa,  1917.     66  p. 

After  a  survey  of  existing  word  lists  from  writing  vocabu- 
laries, the  reader  is  given  a  statement  of  the  problem  in  Chapter 
II  under  the  caption  "Aim."  Four  divisions  are  presented  in 
statement  form  as  follows : 

"The  aim  of  the  present  study  is  (1)  to  supplement  and 
expand  the  work  that  has  been  done  in  the  various  studies,  (2) 
to  show  comparatively,  by  extensive  tabulation,  the  number  of 
words  that  are  common  in  the  writing  vocabularies  of  persons 
in  various  callings,  (3)  to  show  the  extent  and  range  of  vocabu- 
laries used  by  persons  in  certain  different  callings,  (4)  to  point 
out  the  educational  significance  of  these  findings." 

JuDD,  Charles  H.  "Psychological  Analysis  of  the  Funda- 
mentals of  Arithmetic,"  Supplementary  Educational 
Monograph,  No.  32.  University  of  Chicago.  Chicago: 
University  of  Chicago,  1927.    121  p. 

The  reader  is  given  a  statement  of  the  problem  on  page  15 
under  the  caption,  "purpose  of  the  present  study,"  in  a  series  of 
complete  statements. 

d.  A  general  statement  followed  by  subordinate  statements. 

Humphreys,  Harry  C.  "The  Factors  Operating  in  the 
Location  of  State  Normal  Schools,"  Teachers  College, 
Columbia  University  Contributions  to  Education,  No. 
142.  New  York:  Bureau  of  Publications,  Columbia  Uni- 
versity, 1923.    152  p.  1| 

In  the  first  chapter,  which  is  entitled  "The  Problem  Stated," 
the  reader  is  given  a  statement  of  three  central  problems :  "The 


i 


Techniques  of  Educational  Research  19 

central  problems  are:  first,  to  ascertain  the  leading  factors  that 
have  operated  in  the  locating  of  state  normal  schools  and  teach- 
ers' colleges;  secondly,  to  find  and  formulate  guiding  principles 
for  the  location  of  such  institutions ;  thirdly,  to  propose  certain 
critical  standards  for  the  locating  of  normal  schools. 

"The  minor  problems  involved  in  working  out  the  central 
problems  are :  first,  a  comparison  of  the  normal  schools  of  a 
state  as  to  enrollment,  number  of  graduates,  and  other  factors 
as  an  indication  of  suitability  of  locations;  secondly,  a  determi- 
nation of  the  radii  of  enrollment  of  state  normal  schools  in 
certain  states  as  evidence  of  poorly  located  and  well  located 
normal  schools." 

Jones,  Walter  Benton.  "Job  Analysis  and  Curriculum 
Construction  in  the  Metal  Trades  Industry,"  Teachers 
College,  Columbia  University  Contributions  to  Educa- 
tion, No.  227.  New  York :  Bureau  of  Publications,  Co- 
lumbia University,  1926.   104  p. 

In  the  opening  sentence  of  the  introductory  chapter,  the 
reader  is  given  a  direct  statement  of  the  problem,  followed  by 
subordinate  statements. 

Meek,  Lois  Hayden.  "A  Study  of  Learning  and  Retention 
in  Young  Children,"  Teachers  College,  Columbia  Uni- 
versity Contributions  to  Education,  No.  164.  New^  York : 
Bureaii  of  Publications,  Columbia  University,  1925.  96  p. 

The  reader  is  given  a  direct  statement  of  the  problem  in 
the  opening  sentence  of  the  first  paragraph. 

3.  Statement  followed  by  restatement  in  the  form  of  a  question. 

KoRNHAUSER,  A.  W.  "The  Economic  Standing  of  Parents 
and  the  Intelligence  of  Their  Children,"  Journal  of  Edu- 
cational Psychology,  9:  159-64,  March,  1918. 

In  the  second  paragraph  of  part  I,  the  reader  is  given  a 
statement  of  the  problem  as  follows :  "The  purpose  of  the  fol- 
lowing inquiry  was  simply  to  attempt,  by  a  brief  survey,  to  find 
whether  any  clear  indication  would  appear  of  a  correlation 
between  intelligence  of  children,  measured  crudely  by  school 
advancement,  and  the  economic  standing  of  the  parents,  measured 
still  more  crudely."  After  further  discussion  the  problem  is 
stated  again  in  the  form  of  a  question :  "Do  poorer  parents  on 
the  whole  have  less  advanced  children;  do  wealthier  parents 
have  more  advanced  children?" 

Daily,  Benjamin  W.    "The  Ability  of  High  School  Pupils 

to  Select  Essential  Data  in  Solving  Problems,"  Teachers 

College,  Columbia  University  Contributions  to  Education, 

No.  190.    New  York :  Bureau  of  Publications,  Columbia 

University,  1925.    103  p. 

The  reader  is  given  a  statement  of  the  problem  in  the  first 
sentence    of   Chapter    I    under   the   heading,    "The    Subject   and 


20  Bulletin  No.  38 

Method  of  the  Study."    It  is  later  stated  again  in  the  form  of  a 
question. 

YoAKAM,  Gerald  Alan.  "The  Effects  of  a  Single  Read- 
ing," University  of  lozva  Studies  in  Education,  Vol.  2, 
No.  7.    Iowa  City :  University  of  Iowa,  1924.   100  p. 

The  reader  is  given  a  statement  of  the  problem  in  the 
opening  sentence  of  Chapter  I.  At  the  conclusion  of  Chapter 
III,  the  problem  is  restated  in  the  form  of  a  question. 

4.  A  Statement  followed  by  a  series  of  theses. 

Crow,  Charles  Sumner.  "Evaluation  of  English  Liter- 
ature in  the  High  School,"  Teachers  College,  Columbia 
University  Contributions  to  Education,  No.  141.  New 
York :  Bureau  of  Publications,  Columbia  University, 
1924.    172  p. 

The  reader  is  given  a  statement  of  the  problem  in  the  first 
paragraph  of  this  study,  under  the  heading,  "Theses  and  Prob- 
lems." It  is:  "To  test  and  arrange  the  subject-matter  in  a  given 
field,  English  literature  in  the  high  school,  in  accordance  with  the 
pupils'  judgment  of  its  values  given  in  terms  of  ends  that  are 
generally  recognized  as  socially  valuable."  Following  this  state- 
ment of  the  problem  is  a  brief  paragraph  introducing  the  five 
theses  which  are  to  be  demonstrated. 

B.     Definition  of  the  problem. 

1.  Analysis  of  the  major  problem  or  problems  in  terms  of  subordi- 
nate problems. 

Horn,  Ernest.  "Distribution  of  Opportunity  for  Partici- 
pation among  the  Various  Pupils  in  Classroom  Recita- 
tions," Teachers  College,  Columbia  University  Contribu- 
tions to  Education,  No.  67.  New  York:  Bureau  of  Pub- 
lications, Columbia  University,  1914.  40  p. 

The  problem  is  stated  in  the  following  sentence  on  page  1 : 
"The  purpose  of  this  investigation  is  to  discover  the  distribution 
of  opportunity  for  participation  among  the  various  pupils  in 
class-room  recitations."  It  is  more  clearly  defined  by  a  resolu- 
tion into  eight  subordinate  problems,  two  of  which  are:  "1.  How 
equally  is  the  opportunitj'  for  participation  distributed?  2.  What 
is  the  relation  between  the  amount  of  reciting  done  and  the 
general  all-round  ability  of  the  pupil?" 

Ashbaugh,  E.  J.  "Senior  High-School  English  as  Revealed 
by  a  Standard  Test,"  Journal  of  Educational  Research, 
13  :249-58,  April,  1926. 

The  reader  is  given  an  analysis  of  the  problem  in  terms 
of  subordinate  problems  stated  in  the  form  of  questions  on 
page  257  in  the  last  paragraph. 


Techniques  of  Educational  Research  21 

Smith,   H.   P.      "The   Business  Administration   of   a   City 

School  System,"  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University 

Contributions  to  Education,  No.  197.  New  York :  Bureau 

of  Publications,  Columbia  University,  1925.    129  p. 

The  problem  is  more  clearly  defined  by  an  analysis  into 
three  subordinate  problems.  This  analysis  is  given  on  page  9 
of  the  monograph. 

2.  Statement  of  the  limits  or  scope  of  study. 

Ayer,    Adelaide    M.      "Some    Difficulties    in    Elementary 

School  History,"  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University 

Contributions  to  Education,  No.  212.  New  Yofk :  Bureau 

of  Publications,  Columbia  University,  1926.     70  p. 

The  reader  is  given  the  limits  of  this  study  on  page  4  under 
the  heading,  "Grades  Selected  for  This  Study."  The  last  sen- 
tence of  the  first  paragraph  under  this  caption  is  the  following: 
"Hov^'ever,  this  thesis  is  confined  specifically  to  a  study  of  fifth 
and  seventh  grade  pupils'  reactions  to  history  textbook  material." 
The  study  is  further  limited  to  subject  matter  which  was  intended 
for  use  in  the  fifth  grade.  The  seventh  grade  was  tested  on  this 
same  material. 

Daily,  Benjamin  W.    "The  Ability  of  High  School  Pupils 

to  Select  Essential  Data  in  Solving  Problems,"  Teachers 

College,  Columbia  University  Contributions  to  Education, 

No.  190.    New  York :  Bureau  of  Publications,  Columbia 

University,  1925.    103  p. 

The  purpose  of  this  study  is  given  in  the  first  sentence  of 
the  opening  paragraph.  Immediately  following  this  the  reader  is 
given  four  questions  which  state  the  scope  of  the  study. 

HuNSiCKER,  Lilian  May.     "A  Study  of  the  Relationship 

Between  Rate  and  Ability,"  Teachers  College,  Columbia 

University  Contributions  to  Education,  No.  185.     New 

York :    Bureau    of    Publications,    Columbia    University, 

1925.  52  p. 

On  page  15,  after  a  statement  of  the  assumptions  upon 
which  the  experiment  is  built,  the  reader  is  given  a  statement  of 
the  limits  of  the  study. 

3.  Orientation  of  the  problem  by  means  of : 

a.  A  historical  account,  remote  or  recent. 

HuNsiCKER,  Lilian  May.  "A  Study  of  the  Relationship 
Between  Rate  and  Ability,"  Teachers  College,  Columbia 
University  Contributions  -to  Education,  No.   185.     New 


22  Bulletin  No.  38 

York :    Bureau    of    Publications,    Columbia    University, 
1925.   52  p. 

In  the  first  chapter  of  this  study,  the  reader  is  given  a 
historical  account  of  the  problem  which  serves  the  purpose  of 
orientation.  This  historical  account  is  limited  to  a  cursory 
review  of  representative  types  of  investigations,  and  furnishes 
the  reader  with  a  clear  idea  of  the  present  status  of  the  question. 
The  author  is  thus  able  to  use  this  historical  account  as  a  point 
of  departure  for  his  own  study  of  the  problem.  On  page  36 
under  the  caption,  "Background,"  a  summary  of  the  historical 
survey  appears. 

Coy,  Genevieve  L.  "The  Interests,  Abilities  and  Achieve- 
ments of  a  Special  Class  for  Gifted  Children,"  Teachers 
College,  Columbia  University  Contributions  to  Education, 
No.  131.  New  York:  Bureau  of  Publications,  Columbia 
University,  1923.    191  p. 

Following   the    statement   of   the   problem   on   page    1,   andj 
under  the   caption,   "Historical    Summary   of    Educational   Pro- 
visions for  the  Gifted,"  the  reader  is  given  a  length}^  discussionl 
of  the  historical  movement  of  special  classes  for  gifted  children." 

b.  A  survey  of  previous  studies  or  related  studies. 

Reeves,  Charles  Everand.  "An  Analysis  of  Janitor  Serv- 
ice in  Elementary  Schools,"  Teachers  College,  Columbia 
University  Contributions  to  Education,  No.  167.  New 
York :  Bureau  of  Publications,  Columbia  University, 
1925.     194  p. 

On  pages  7  to  10  imder  the  heading,  "Previous  Studies  of 
School  Janitor  Service,"  the  reader  is  given  a  survey  of  several 
studies,  and  their  results  are  compared  and  evaluated.  The  author 
uses  this  survey  of  previous  studies  to  show  that  research  in 
the  field  of  his  problem  has  been  very  meager.  It  also  serves 
the  purpose  of  introducing  the  definition  of  the  problem. 

Reeder,  Edwix  Hewett.  "A  Method  of  Directing  Chil- 
dren's Study  of  Geography,"  Teachers  College,  Colum- 
bia University  Contributions  to  Education,  No.  193.  New 
York :  Bureau  of  Publications,  Columbia  University, 
1925.    98  p. 

Beginning  with  the  second  paragraph  on  page  1  and  con- 
tinuing through  to  the  bottom  of  page  2,  the  reader  is  given  a 
survey  of  several  studies  in  the  field  of  elementary  geography. 
They  are  brieflj'  described  and  evaluated. 


Techniques  of  Educational  Research  23 

c.  An  analysis  of  previous  studies  or  related  subjects. 

BuTTERWECK,  JosEPH  S.  "The  Problem  of  Teaching  High 
School  Pupils  How  to  Study,"  Teachers  College,  Colum- 
bia University  Contributions  to  Education,  No.  237. 
New  York :  Bureau  of  Publications,  Columbia  Univer- 
sity, 1926.     116  p. 

Beginning  with  the  last  paragraph  on  page  6  and  extending 
to  the  middle  of  page  10,  the  reader  is  given  a  critical  evaluation 
of  the  studies  of  Hinsdale,  Whipple,  McMurray,  Charters,  and 
others.  This  analysis  leads  up  to  a  discussion  of  the  proper 
method  to  be  used  in  approaching  the  problem. 

d.  Preliminary  surve}*. 

Powers,  Samuel  Ralph.  "A  Diagnostic  Stud}^  of  the  Sub- 
ject Matter  of  High  School  Chemistry,"  Teachers  Col- 
lege, Columbia  University  Contributions  to  Education, 
No.  149.  New  York :  Bureau  of  Publications,  Columbia 
University,  1924.    84  p. 

On  page  2,  the  reader  is  given  a  report  of  a  brief  survey 
of  a  preliminary  investigation  made  by  the  author.  He  uses  this 
means  of  introducing  the  hypothesis  upon  which  he  bases  the 
statement  of  his  problem. 

4.  Description  of  the  general  nature  of  the  problem. 

a.  Type. 

Camp,  Harold  Laverne.     "Scales  for  Measuring  Results 

of   Physics   Teaching,"    University   of  lozva  Studies  in 

Education,  Vol.  2,  No.  2.  Iowa  City :  University  of  Iowa, 

1922.    51  p. 

Under  the  caption,  "Definition  of  the  Problem,"  the  reader 
is  given  a  description  of  its  general  nature.  For  instance,  "to 
formulate  and  select  exercises,  the  correct  handling  of  which 
involves  the  above  phases  of  ability."  Some  further  idea  of  its 
general  nature  may  be  found  in  the  discussion  following  the 
caption,  "Methods  of  Evaluating  Test  Material,"  on  page  6. 

b.  Source. 

Hamilton,  Otto  Templar.  "The  Courts  and  the  Curric- 
ulum," Teachers  College,  Columbia  University  Contri- 
butions to  Education,  No.  250.  New  York:  Bureau  of 
Publications,  Columbia  University,  1927.     168  p. 

The  general  nature  of  the  problem  is  indicated  by  a  dis- 
cussion of  the  sources  of  data  given  on  page  2. 


24  Bulletin  No.  38 

c.    Procedure. 

BuTTERWECK,  JosEPH  S.  "The  Problem  of  Teaching  High 
School  Pupils  How  to  Study,"  Teachers  College,  Colum- 
bia University  Contributions  to  Education,  Xo.  237. 
Xew  York :  Bureau  of  Publications,  Columbia  Univer- 
sity, 1926.     116  p. 

On  page  18,  near  the  end  of  a  description  of  the  experi- 
mental set-up,  the  general  nature  of  the  problem  is  made  clearer 
to  the  reader  by  a  concise  statement  of  the  procedure.  The 
procedure  is  described  briefly  as  follows  :  "The  experiment  con- 
sisted of  the  following:  creating  three  groups  of  pupils  as  nearly 
alike  as  possible  in  those  factors  which  form  the  basis  of  school 
success  as  conceived  in  the  average  school  to-day ;  permitting  the 
control  group  to  continue  its  usual  study  procedure ;  giving  the 
non-practice  group  a  course  in  best  methods  of  study;  and  sub- 
jecting the  practice  group  to  a  series  of  practice  material  in  study 
situations  in  which  it  was  engaged  throughout  the  year." 

5.  Statement  of  limitations  of  technique  employed. 

Anibel,  Fred  G.  "Comparative  Efifectiveness  of  the  Lec- 
ture-Demonstration and  Individual  Laboratory  Method," 
Journal  of  Educational  Research,  13  :355-6S,  ^lay,  1926. 

The  reader  is  given  a  limitation  in  the  defining  of  the  prob- 
lem in  the  section  entitled  "Time  Element"  on  pages  363  and  364 
where  the  author  says:  "The  primary  object  of  the  study  being 
to  determine  the  comparative  effectiveness  of  the  laboratory  in- 
struction, there  was  no  recording  of  the  time  element." 

Crow,  Charles  Sumner.  "Evaluation  of  English  Liter- 
ature in  the  High  School,"  Teachers  College,  Columbia 
University  Contributions  to  Education,  No.  141.  New 
York :  Bureau  of  Publications,  Columbia  L'^niversity, 
1924.     172  p. 

On  page  2,  imder  the  caption,  "Limitations  of  Study,"  the 
reader  is  given  several  direct  references  to  the  limits  of  the 
study.  After  stating  that  the  purpose  of  the  work  is  the  defend- 
ing of  certain  theses  and  the  answering  of  certain  questions,  the 
reader  is  further  told :  "There  is  no  attempt  to  take  account  of 
the  method  of  teaching." 

Teagarden,  Florence  M.     "A  Study  of  the  Upper  Limits 

of  the  Development  of  Intelligence,"  Teachers  College, 

Columbia    University    Contributions   to   Education,    No. 

156.      New    York:    Bureau    of    Publications,    Columbia 

University,  1924.     112  p. 

At  the  beginning  of  the  second  chapter,  the  reader  is  given 
a  discussion  of  the  limitations  of  the  data,  the  nature  of  which 


ll 


Techniques  of  Educational  Research  25 

is  indicated  by  the  following  sentence :  "As  a  preface  to  the  dis- 
cussion of  the  selection  and  use  of  tests  as  measures  of  intelli- 
gence it  should  be  said  that  perfection  is  not  here  claimed  for 
any  of  our  present  tools  of  measurement." 

6.  Recognition  of  assumptions  and  implications. 

HuNSiCKER,  Lilian  May.     "A  Study  of  the  Relationship 

between  Rate  and  Ability,"  Teachers  College,  Columbia 

University  Contributions  to  Education,  No.   185.     New 

York :    Bureau    of    Publications,    Columbia    University, 

1925.    52  p. 

In  the  first  sentence  of  Chapter  II,  the  reader  is  given  a 
direct  statement  of  the  problem.  Following  this  the  "two  funda- 
mental assumptions"  upon  which  the  experiment  is  built  are 
given.  These  are,  "1.  'If  a  thing  exists,,  it  must  exist  in  some 
amount;  and  if  it  exists  in  some  amount,  it  can  be  measured.' 
2.  The  relationship  between  rate  and  ability  is  an  open  question 
of  such  importance  that  research  should  not  stop  short  of  a 
solution  that  is  substantiated  by  trustworthy,  experimental  evi- 
dence." 

7.  Importance,  value,  or  significance  of  study  to  education. 

Willing,  Matthew  H.     ''Valid  Diagnosis  in  High  School 

Composition,"    Teachers    College,    Columbia    University 

Contributions  to  Education,  No.  230.  New  York :  Bureau 

of  Publications,  Columbia  University,  1926.    64  p. 

The  importance  of  the  problem  is  indicated  on  page  2,  in 
the  discussion  as  to  its  significance. 

8.  Definition  of  terms. 

Hamilton,  Otto  Templar.  "The  Courts  and  the  Curric- 
ulum," Teachers  College,  Columbia  University  Contri= 
butions  to  Education,  No.  250.  New  York :  Bureau  of 
Publications,  Columbia  University,  1927.     168  p. 

Under  the  heading,  "Definitions  and  Terms  Used,"  the 
reader  is  given  definitions  of  some  of  the  words  and  terms  used 
in  the  study.  For  example,  the  word  "curriculum"  is  defined  as 
follows  :  "The  word  curriculum  is  used  in  this  study  as  a  general 
term  by  which  to  designate  all  the  subject  matter  of  instruction 
to  which  the  child  is  exposed  as  a  result  of  his  school  experi- 
ence." 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Alexander,  Carter.     Educational  Research.     New  York :  Teachers 

College,  Columbia  University,  1927.   41  p.     A  pamphlet. 

After   discussing  the   fields   in   which   investigators   will   institute   in- 
quiries,  the   procedures   to  be  used   in   defining  a   problem   are   suggested. 


26  Bulletin  No.  38 

These  relate  to  such  items  as  originality,  value,  and  sufficient  limitation  to 
permit  exhaustive  treatment. 

Bay,  James  C.    "The  Training  of  a  Research  Worker  in  Education," 

School  and  Society,  25  :274-78,  March,  1927, 

The  process  of  educational  research  gets  under  way  with  the  formula- 
tion of  a  definite  problem.  The  delimiting  of  the  subject  establishes  "a 
criterion  for  judging  the  pertinency  of  data." 

Kelly,  F.  J.     "Scientific  Method  in  College  Administration  and  Col- 
lege Teaching,"  School  and  Society,  20  :390-96,  September,  1924. 

This  is  an  exceptionally  sane  aiticle.  It  reflects  a  sound  conception 
of  the  nature  of  educational  research  and  the  service  which  it  can  render. 
In  the  first  two  divisions  of  the  article,  the  necessity  of  a  clear  analysis  of 
the  problem  is  stressed.  This  analysis  should  be  made  before  the  investi- 
gator begins  to  gather  data. 

McCall,  William  A.    Hoiv  to  Experiment  in  Education.  New  York : 
The  Macmillan  Company,  1923,  p.  9-11. 

The  reader  is  given  a  brief  discussion  of  the  technique  to  be  used 
in  the  formulation  of  a  problem.  The  scope  of  the  problem  should  be 
neither  too  broad  nor  too  nairow.  It  is  desirable  that  specific  problems  be 
formulated  which  contribute  to  larger  investigations. 

Trow,  William  C.    Scientific  Method  in  Education.    Boston  :  Hough- 
ton ^lifflin  Company,  1925,  p.  38-42. 

Seeing  a  problem  is  the  starting  point  of  research.  The  author  com- 
plains that  graduate  students  do  not  see  problems  themselves.  "So  they 
confer  with  some  member  of  the  graduate  faculty  and  ask  him  for  a 
problem  to  work  on;  they  can't  seem  to  think  of  any.  Can't  think  of  any, 
and  the  world  fairly  bursting  with  them." 


CHAPTER  III 

COLLECTING  DATA 

What  are  data?  Data  include  all  concepts,  facts,  and  principles 
used  in  thinking  out  the  answers  to  thought  questions.  In  other  words, 
data  are  the  things  we  use  in  thinking.  The  meaning  of  these  state- 
ments will  be  more  apparent  if  we  note  some  of  the  types  of  data : 

1.  Ages  of  school  children 

2.  Scores  made  on  standardized  tests 

3.  School  marks,  and  other  facts  from  school  records 

4.  Answers  to  questionnaires 

5.  Expenditures  for  educational  purposes 

6.  Assessed  values  and  tax  rates 

7.  Measures  of  school  buildings 

8.  Statements  of  beliefs  or  opinions 

9.  School  laws 

10.  Counts  of  things  such  as  school  children,  number  of  pages, 

etc. 

11.  Principles 

12.  Descriptions  of  schools,  events,  etc. 

13.  Observations 

14.  Historical  information 

15.  Errors  in  children's  compositions 

16.  Stenographic  reports  of  lessons 

The  data  to  be  collected  specified  by  the  problem.  When  a  prob- 
lem has  been  adequately  defined,  the  data  needed  for  its  solution  are 
clearly  indicated.  Hence  "collecting  data"  does  not  mean  bringing 
together  whatever  data  may  be  easily  accessible.  Instead,  it  means 
collecting  the  data  specified  by  the  problem.^ 

Objective  data  versus  subjective  data.  When  data  are  such  that 
there  has  been  very  little  or  no  opportunity  for  them  to  be  affected  by 
the  person  collecting  them,  they  are  described  as  "objective."  The 
term  "subjective  data"  has  the  opposite  meaning;  that  is,  they  are  data 
of  such  a  character  that  they  might  be  affected  by  the  prejudices, 
opinions,  and  judgment  of  the  person  collecting  them. 

Methods  of  collecting  data.  It  is  apparent  from  the  above  list  of 
types  of  data  that  many  different  procedures  are  employed  in  collect- 
ing data.  In  general,  each  type  requires  unique  techniques,  and  within 
each  type  the  required  techniques  may  vary  according  to  the  problem. 

^See  the  reference  by  James  C.  Bay,  page  26. 

[27] 


28  Bulletin  No.  38 

Compiling  a  bibliography,  a  phase  of  collecting  data.  The  com- 
piling of  a  bibliography,  which  is  a  phase  of  collecting  data,  is  seldom 
described  in  a  report  of  educational  research  but  the  general  method 
to  be  employed  has  been  described  in  several  places. - 

ILLUSTRATIVE  REFERENCES 

A.     Subjective  data. 

1.  Formulation  of  criteria  to  be  used  as  a  basis  for  estimates. 

LooMis,  Arthur  Kirkwood.  "The  Technique  of  Esti- 
mating School  Equipment  Costs,"  Teachers  College, 
Columbia  University  Contributions  to  Education,  No. 
208.  New  York :  Bureau  of  Publications,  Columbia  Uni- 
versity, 1926.     112  p. 

Immediately  after  the  statement  of  the  purpose  of  the 
problem  on  page  1,  the  caption,  "Criteria,"  appears.  Under  this 
caption,  the  reader  finds  that  four  criteria  are  listed  and  briefly 
explained.     These   are :    "Reliability,   Adequacy,   Flexibility,  and 

Simplicity." 

Nanxixga,  S.  p.  "A  Critical  Study  of  Rating  Traits," 
Educational  Administration  and  Supervision,  12:114-19, 
February,  1926. 

On  page  114,  the  reader  is  given  a  list  of  fifteen  criteria 
which  are  to  be  used  by  teachers  when  rating  pupils. 

2.  Use  of  criteria. 

Kexxox,  Laura  Hall  Vere.  '"Tests  for  Literar}-  Vocabu- 
lary for  Teachers  of  English,"  Teachers  College,  Colum- 
bia University  Contributions  to  Education,  No.  223.  New 
York :  Bureau  of  Publications,  Columbia  University, 
1926,  78  p. 

The  two  literary  vocabular}'  tests  presented  to  the  reader  in 
this  study  were  made  up  of  two  hundred  words  drawn  largely 
from  the  special  fields  of  English  literature.  Under  the  sub- 
topic,  "The  Basis  of  Choice,"  the  reader  is  told  that  "Certain 
considerations  governed  the  choice  of  words  which  were  con- 
sidered suitable  for  literary  word  knowledge  tests."  The  first 
two  of  these  considerations  may  be  given  as  follows:  "1.  Occur- 
rence in  a  supposedly  familiar  or  famous  passage  of  English 
prose  or  poetr}'.  2.  Occurrence  in  prose  or  poetry  of  a  certain 
historical  period  included  in  the  special  field  of  English  liter- 
ature."   The  application  of  these  criteria  is  illustrated  on  page  15. 


^Monroe,  Walter  S.,  and  Asher,  Ollie.  "A  Bibliography  of  Bibliographies,"  University 
of  Illinois  Bulletin,  Vol.  24,  Xo.  44,  Bureau  of  Educational  Research  Bulletin  Xo.  36.  Urbana: 
TJniversity  of  Illinois,   1927.    60  p. 


Techniques  of  Educational  Research  29 

B.     Objective  data. 

1.  Techniques  employed  in  collecting. 
a.  Analysis. 

(1)  Analysis  of  textbooks. 

Strang,  Ruth.      "Subject  IMatter   in   Health   Education," 

Teachers  College,  Columbia  University  Contributions  to 

Education,  No.  222.    New  York:  Bureau  of  Publications, 

Columbia  University,  1926.     108  p. 

The  reader  is  given  a  report  of  the  resuhs  of  a  detailed 
analysis  of  the  contents  of  a  number  of  courses  of  study  and 
textbooks  dealing  with  health.  Under  the  caption,  "Methods  of 
Work,"  the  general  plan  of  analysis  is  described. 

Lively,  Bertha  A.  and  Pressey,  S.  L.  "A  Method  for 
Measuring  the  'Vocabulary  Burden'  of  Textbooks,"  Edu- 
cational Administration  and  Supervision,  9 :389-98,  Oc- 
tober, 1923. 

The  avUhor  describes,  in  the  first  paragraph  on  page  390, 
the  method  used  in  making  an  analysis  of  the  vocabulary  of 
textbooks.  Information  is  given  of  the  way  of  distributing  the 
sampling  in  order  to  cover  a  large  number  of  books. 

Monroe,  Walter  S.  and  Clark,  John  A.  "The  Teacher's 
Responsibility  for  Devising  Learning  Exercises  in  Arith- 
metic," University  of  Illinois  Bidletin,  Vol.  23,  No.  41, 
Bureau  of  Educational  Research  Bulletin  No.  31.  L^r- 
bana :  University  of  Illinois,  1926.    92  p. 

The  technique  used  in  the  analysis  of  arithmetic  textbooks 
is  described  in  Chapter  IV.  The  problems,  of  certain  texts  were 
classified  according  to  tj^pe.  The  symbols  used  to  facilitate  the 
classification  are  given  in  the  appendix. 

(2)  Analysis  of  pupil  performances. 

TouTON,  Frank  Charles.     "Solving  Geometric  Originals," 

Teachers  College,  Columbia  University  Contributions  to 

Education,  No.  146.    New  York :  Bureau  of  Publications, 

Columbia  University,  1924.     114  p. 

This  is  a  report  of  an  analysis  of  2800  examination  papers. 
On  page  4  under  the  heading,  "Analysis  of  Pupils'  Work,"  the 
reader  is  told  how  the  analysis  was  made. 

(3)  Analysis  of  records. 

Carrother.s,  George  E.  "The  Physical  Efficiency  of  Teach- 
ers,"  Teachers  College,  Columbia   University  Contribu- 


30  Bulletin  No.  38 

tions  to  Education,   No.    155.      New   York:   Bureau   of 

Publications,  Columbia  University,  1924.    78  p. 

School  records  and  reports  constitute  the  source  of  data  in 
this  study.  The  tables  given  are  based  on  an  analysis  of  these 
records,  and  all  conclusions  are  drawn  from  them. 

OjEMANN,  Ralph  H.  "The  Constant  and  Variable  Occu- 
pations in  the  United  States  in  1920,"  University  of 
Illinois  Bulletin,  Vol.  24,  No.  39,  Bureau  of  Educational 
Research  Bulletin  No.  35.  Urbana :  University  of  Illi- 
nois, 1927.    47  p. 

Census  reports  were  used  as  one  of  the  sources  of  data  in 
this  investigation.  Information  is  given  on  page  10  concerning 
the  procedure  used  in  the  collection  of  pertinent  facts. 

b.  Experimental  procedures. 

( 1 )  One  group  method. 

Helseth,  Inga  O.  "Children's  Thinking,"  Teachers  Col- 
lege, Columbia  University  Contributions  to  Education, 
No.  209.  New  York :  Bureau  of  Publications,  Columbia 
University,  1926.     163  p. 

The  experiment  was  a  project  in  U.  S.  history  conducted 
with  one  group  of  sixteen  pupils,  two  boys  and  fourteen  girls, 
classified  as  seventh  and  eighth  grade.  The  technique  employed 
and  the  conditions  involved  in  the  investigation  are  stated  under 
the  caption,  "The  Conditions  and  Records  of  the  Investigation," 
pages  5-9. 

Click,  H.  N.  "The  Effect  of  Practice  on  Intelligence 
Tests,"  University  of  Illinois  Bulletin,  Vol.  23,  No.  3, 
Bureau  of  Educational  Research  Bulletin  No.  27.  Ur- 
bana :  University  of  Illinois,  1925.    23  p. 

On  page  9,  the  reader  is  given  information  pertaining  to  the 
general  plan  of  the  experiment.  It  is  stated  that  care  was  taken 
to  keep  testing  conditions  constant  for  the  several  groups.  The 
use  of  the  same  procedure  on  the  various  groups  makes  this  a 
"one  group  method." 

(2)  Equivalent  group  method. 

Obtaining  equivalent  groups  is  one  of  the  most  important 
techniques  of  experimentation.  Two  general  methods  are 
employed.  Frequently,  an  investigator  selects  the  groups  by 
means  of  random  sampling  or  in  some  other  way  that  justi- 
fies the  expectation  that  approximate  equivalents  will  be  se- 
cured.    After  the  selection  has  been  made,  information  in 


Techniques  of  Educational  Research  31 

regard  to  the  groups  is  sought  and  if  it  is  found  that  approxi- 
mate equivalents  have  not  been  secured,  the  investigator 
makes  a  re-determination  of  the  groups  or  allows  for  the 
non-equivalents  in  interpreting  his  data.  According  to  the 
second  method,  the  investigator  collects  data  in  regard  to 
the  characteristics  of  the  pupils  and  then  builds  up  his  group 
by  pairing  ofif  equivalent  pupils  so  that  equivalent  groups 
will  be  obtained.  The  reference  by  Odell  illustrates  the 
first  method ;  that  by  Barton,  the  second. 

Odell,  Charles  W.  "The  Use  of  Intelligence  Tests  as  a 
Basis  of  School  Organization  and  Instruction,"  Univer- 
sity of  Illinois  Bulletin,  Vol.  20,  No.  17,  Bureau  of  Edu- 
cational Research  Bulletin  No.  12.  Urbana :  University 
of  Illinois,  1922.    78  p. 

The  method  of  obtaining  equivalents  used  in  this  study  is 
indicated  by  the  following  sentences  from  page  8 :  "These  schools 
were  divided  into  an  experimental  and  a  control  group  of  four 
each  by  Assistant  Superintendent  A.  B.  Wright.  In  making  this 
selection,  Mr.  Wright  endeavored  to  choose  two  groups  of 
schools  in  which  the  investment  factors  should  be  approximately 
equal  at  the  beginning  of  the  experiment."  Dr.  Odell  later  de- 
termined accurately  the  differences  existing  between  the  experi- 
mental and  control  schools,  and  he  states  that  the  differences 
discovered  "were  not  large  enough  to  invalidate  the  use  of  the 
two  groups  of  schools  in  the  experiment." 

Barton,  W.  A.,  Jr.  "The  Effect  of  Group  Activity  and 
Individual  Effort  in  Developing  Ability  to  Solve  Prob- 
lems in  First  Year  Algebra,"  Educational  Administration 
and  Supervision,  12:  512-18,  November,  1926. 

Under  the  caption,  "Experimental  Procedure,"  the  reader  is 
given  a  description  of  the  method  of  obtaining  two  equivalent 
groups.  The  basis  of  equating  used  in  this  experiment  was  that 
of  chronological  age  and  I.  Q. 

Anibel,  Fred  G.  "Comparative  Effectiveness  of  the  Lec- 
ture-Demonstration and  Individual  Laboratory  Method," 
Journal  of  Educational  Research,  13  :355-65,  May,  1926. 

The  reader  is  given  considerable  information  pertaining  to 
the  methods  of  obtaining  equivalent  groups  in  this  investigation. 
On  page  355  it  is  stated :  "Two  classes  were  selected  each  year  as 
groups  for  the  experiment.  ...  In  order  to  eliminate  other 
factors  which  might  influence  results,  the  two  classes  were  bal- 
anced as  nearly  as  possible  on  the  basis  of  ability  as  determined 
by  standardized  intelligence  tests."  Further  information  is  given 
on  page  366 :  "Some  students  were  shifted  from  one  group  to 
the  other  in  order  that  the  groups  might  be  about  equal  in  intel- 
ligence. After  adjustment  there  were  thirty  pairs  available  for 
the  experiment." 


32  Bulletin"  Xo.  3S 

BuTTERWECK,  JosEPH  S.  "The  Froblem  of  Teaching  High 
School  Pupils  How  to  Study,"  Teachers  College,  Colum- 
bia University  Contributions  to  Education,  Xo.  237.  New 
York:  Bureau  of  Publications,  Columbia  University. 
1926.     116  p. 

In  this  experiment,  the  reader  is  told  that  three  groups  of 
high  school  pupils  were  used.  Group  A  constituted  the  practice 
group,  Group  B  the  non-practice  group,  and  Group  C  the  control 
group.  The  method  of  selecting  and  equating  these  groups  is 
fulh'  described  to  the  reader  in  the  third  chapter  under  the 
caption,  "Experimental  Set-up." 

(3)  Rotation  method.  The  rotation  method  is  a  device  for 
neutralizing  the  etTect  of  unequalized  factors  when  two 

or  more  groups  are  involved  in  an  experiment. 

^loxROE,  Walter  S.  "Relation  of  Sectioning  a  Class  to  the 
Effectiveness  of  Instruction,"  University  of  Illinois  Bul- 
letin, \'o\.  20.  Xo.  11.  Bureau  of  Educational  Research 
Bulletin  Xo.  11.  Urbana  :  Universitv  of  Illinois.  1922. 
IS  p. 

On  page  6,  the  reader  is  informed  that  two  difficulties  are 
avoided  through  the  use  of  a  rotation  method.  The  first  of  these 
ditliculties  is  that  of  securing  equivalence  between  groups,  and 
the  second  that  of  securing  constancy  of  instruction.  The  rota- 
tion technique  employed  in  this  investigation  is  described  on 
pages  5-7. 

c.    Historical. 

Xoble,  Stuart  Graysox.  "Forty  Years  of  the  Public 
Schools  in  Mississippi,"  Teachers  College,  Columbia  Uni- 
versity Contributions  to  Education,  X'o.  94.    Xew  York : 

Bureau  of  Publications.  Columbia  University.  1918.  142 p. 

In  the  preface,  the  reader  is  told,  "I  have  been  forced  to 
draw  my  conclusions  largeh"  from  data  contained  in  the  state 
records,  in  the  government  reports,  and  in  a  limited  number  of 
local  newspapers."  To  support  the  conclusions  the  reader  is  often 
given  quotations  of  brief  extracts  from  original  sources.  See 
page  7  for  several  examples. 

Reigart,  John  Fraxklix.  "The  Lancasterian  System  of 
Instruction  in  the  Schools  of  Xew  York  Cit}',"  Teachers 
College,  Columbia  University  Co>itributions  to  Education, 
Xo.  81.  Xew  York:  Bureau  of  Publications,  Columbia 
University,  1916.    105  p. 

Although   the   reader   is   not   explicitlj-   told   the    technique" 
which  is  employed,  a  perusal  of  the  opening  paragraphs  of  the 


I 


Techniques  of  Euucatioxal  Research  33 

study  clearly  reveals  the  fact  that  the  technique  of  the  research 
may  be  classed  under  the  caption,  historical.  The  sources  of  the 
material  used  in  the  discussion  are  letters,  histories,  reports, 
journals,  addresses,  and  some  current  periodicals.  Numerous 
citations  from  these  sources  are  included. 


(1.  Interview. 

Charters,  Jes.sie  Allex.  "Methods  of  Study  Used  b}-  Col- 
lege Women,"'  Journal  of  Educational  Research,  10  :344- 
55,  December,  1924. 

On  page  345,  the  reader  is  told  that  before  attempting  to 
collect  the  data  used  in  this  investigation,  "A  preliminary  survey 
was  made  of  a  group  of  kindly  persons,  .  .  .  and  by  this 
means  we  developed  a  technique  for  interviewing."  In  the  next 
two  paragraphs,  the  manner  of  using  this  technique  is  explained 
and  a  list  of  the  types  of  subjects  interviewed  is  given.  The  first 
sentence  in  this  explanation  is  the  following:  "Then  fortj^-four 
college  women  were  interviewed  for  fort>^-five  minutes  each  on 
the  average."  On  page  346  under  the  heading,  "Methods  of 
investigation,"  the  author  describes  the  use  made  of  the  data 
secured  by  means  of  the  interviews. 

RuFi,  John.     '"The  Small  High  School,"  Teachers  College, 

Columbia    University   Contributions   to   Education,    Xo. 

236.     Xew    York :    Bureau    of    Publications,    Columbia 

University,  1926.    145  p. 

On  page  10,  under  the  caption,  "Methods  of  Carrying  Out 
the  Stud}',"  the  reader  is  given  a  list  of  several  methods  of  col- 
lecting data,  the  most  prominent  of  which  are  b\-  personal  inter- 
view with  teachers  and  pupils. 

e.  Legal. 

(1)  Statutes. 

Powers,  J.   Orix.      '"Legal   Provisions  and  Regulations   of 

State  Departments  of  Education  Affecting  Junior  High 

Schools,"  School  Review,  3:280-291,  April,  1925. 

The  use  of  statutes  as  data  is  indicated  by  the  author  on 
page  280:  "The  following  publications  were  examined:  (1)  the 
school  codes  of  various  states,  including  all  references  to  high 
schools,  particularly  those  provisions  which  applj-  to  junior  high 
schools — ." 

(2)  Decisions. 

Hamiltox,  Otto  Templar.  '"The  Courts  and  the  Curric- 
ulum,"   Teachers   College,   Columbia    University   Contri- 


34  Bulletin  Xo.  38 

hutions  to  Education,  Xo.  250.     Xew  York:  Bureau  of 

Publications,  Columbia  University,  1927.     168  p. 

Man}'  citations  from  the  laws  and  court  proceedings  are 
included  in  the  stud}'.  For  example,  on  page  11a  quotation  from 
"The  Illinois  Supreme  Court  in  1881"  is  found  defining  the 
term  "common  school." 

f.    Questionnaire. 

( 1 )  Opinion. 

Stuart,  Hugh.  "The  Training  of  Modern  Foreign  Lang- 
uage Teachers  for  the  Secondary  Schools  in  the  United 
States,"  Teachers  College,  Cohcmbia  University  Contri- 
butions to  Education,  No.  256.  New  York :  Bureavi  of 
Publications,  Columbia  University,  1927.     Ill  p. 

The  questionnaire  method  was  used  in  collecting  the  data 
for  this  study.  In  Chapter  I,  under  the  heading  "Collection  of 
Data,"  the  reader  is  informed  that  the  first  questionnaire  con- 
sisted of  one  hundred  and  eighteen  questions  covering  all  phases 
of  the  subject.  The  following  examples  taken  from  the  question- 
naire illustrate  requests  for  opinions:  "Which  subjects,  in  your 
opinion,  are  pedagogically  most  suitable  as  minors  with  a  teach- 
ing major  in  F.  G.  I.  S?"  and  "What  textbooks  have  you  found 
best  adapted  to  your  courses  on  phonetics?"  The  questionnaires 
are  given  in  the  appendix. 

MoxROE,  Walter  S,.,  and  Herriott,  M.  E.  "Objectives  of 
United  States  History  in  Grades  Seven  and  Eight," 
University  of  Illinois  Bidletin,  Vol.  23,  No.  3,  Bureau  of 
Educational  Research  Bulletin  No.  33.  Urbana :  Univer- 
sity of  Illinois,  1926.    68  p. 

The  questionnaire  used  in  this  investigation  is  given  on 
page  9.  The  necessity  of  using  judgment  or  opinion  in  giving 
the  information  desired  is  illustrated  by  the  following  sentence 
taken  from  the  questionnaire:  "V.  Give  below  15  thought  ques- 
tions in  United  States  history  which  you  think  children  complet- 
ing the  seventh  and  eighth  grades  should  be  able  to  answer." 

(2)  Facts. 

Larson,  E.  L.  "One-Room  and  Consolidated  Schools  of 
Connecticut,"  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University 
Contributions  to  Education,  No.  182.  New  York :  Bu- 
reau of  Publications,  Columbia  University,  1925.    67  p. 

One  portion  of  the  data  used  in  this  study  was  obtained  by 
means  of  a  questionnaire  sent  to  teachers  of  one-room  and  con- 
solidated schools  of  Connecticut.  The  nature  of  the  facts  ob- 
tained  is   indicated  by  the   following  questions :   "What   is  vour 


Techniques  of  Educational  Research  35 

salary  for  the  3'ear  1923-24?"  and  "What  opportunities  for  social 
life  do  you  have?" 

Reavis,  George  H.  "Factors  Controlling  Attendance  in 
Rural  Schools,"  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University 
Contributions  to  Education,  No.  108.  New  York :  Bureau 
of  Publications,  Columbia  Universit}',  1920.    69  p. 

The  reader  is  told  that  the  facts  concerning  attendance  in 
this  study  were  gathered  from  the  questionnaire  sent  to  the 
teachers  of  one-teacher  country  schools  concerning  6450  pupils 
of  five  counties  of  Maryland.  The  report  sought  information 
about  the  child,  the  school,  and  the  community.  The  question- 
naire and  facts  considered  are  given  on  pages  26-35. 

Odell,  Charles  \V.  "The  Progress  and  Elimination  of 
School  Children  in  Illinois,"  University  of  Illinois  Bul- 
letin, Vol.  21,  No.  38,  Bureau  of  Educational  Research 
Bulletin  No.  19.  Urbana :  University  of  Illinois,  1924. 
76  p. 

One  of  the  procedures  employed  in  the  collection  of  data 
for  this  investigation  was  the  use  of  a  questionnaire.  The 
recipient  of  the  questionnaire  was  asked  to  place  certain  facts  in 
the  blanks  provided.  The  questionnaire  is  reproduced"  on  page 
70  of  the  bulletin. 

g.  Survey. 

BuRXHAM,  Ernest.  'Two  Types  of  Rural  Schools,"  Teach- 
ers College,  Columbia  University  Contributions  to  Edu- 
cation, No.  51.  New  York:  Bureau  of  Publications,  Co- 
lumbia University,  1912.    129  p. 

One  of  the  methods  employed  in  collecting  the  data  for  this 
study  is  implied  in  the  paragraph  entitled,  "The  Survey  Idea." 
The  reader  is  told  that  "The  survey  idea,  the  taking  of  stock  of 
existing  conditions  in  itemized  details,  is  growing  rapidly  into 
wide  application  in  various  fields  of  human  activity.  This  idea 
seems  well  adapted  for  use  in  a  scientific  study  of  education." 

Emmons,  F.  E.  "City  School  Attendance  Service,"  Teach- 
ers College,  Columbia  University  Contributions  to  Edu- 
cation, No.  200.  New  York:  Bureau  of  Publications, 
Columbia  University,  1926.     173  p. 

On  page  9  is  given  the  source  of  data,  which  consists  of  the 
1923-24  attendance  reports  of  fifty  cities. 

Smith,  H.  P.  "The  Business  Administration  of  a  City 
School  System,"  Teachers  College,  Columbia  University 


36  Bulletin  No.  38 

Contributions  to  Education,  No.  197.  New  York:  Bureau 

of  Publications,  Columbia  University,  1925.     129  p. 

Under  the  heading,  "Source  of  Data,"  on  page  8  is  given  a 
description  of  a  survey  made  of  business  activities  and  school 
costs  in  each  of  twentj^-five  cities. 

h.  Test  construction. 

(1)  Scale. 

HoTZ,  Henry  Gustave.  "First  Year  Algebra  Scales,"  Teach- 
ers College,  Columbia  University  Contributions  to  Edu- 
cation, No.  90.  New  York :  Bureau  of  Publications, 
Columbia  University,  1918.     87  p. 

In  Chapter  II,  the  reader  is  given  information  pertaining  to 
the  collection  of  data  upon  which  the  scales  were  based.  The 
author  states  that  a  set  of  preliminary  tests  were  given  to  de- 
termine which  exercises  were  of  most  value  as  test  material  and 
also  to  determine  roughly  the  order  of  difficulty.  With  this 
information  at  hand  it  was  possible  to  construct  the  scales. 

(2)  Tests. 

BuswELL,  G.  T.  "Diagnostic  Studies  in  Arithmetic,"  Uni- 
versity of  Chicago  Supplementary  EducatioJial  Mono- 
graph, No.  30.  Chicago :  University  of  Chicago  Press, 
1926.    212  p. 

The  method  of  formulating  the  tests  used  in  this  study  is 
explained  in  detail  from  pages  88  to  100.  The  examples  used 
"were  constructed  after  a  logical  analysis  had  been  made  of  the 
various  factors  which  enter  into  the  successive  steps  in  the  four 
fundamental  processes." 

i.    Observation. 

Helseth,  Inga  O.  "Children's  Thinking,"  Teachers  College, 
Columbia  University  Contributions  to  Education,  No. 
209.  New  York :  Bureau  of  Publications,  Columbia  Uni- 
versity, 1926.    163  p. 

A  brief  discussion  of  the  method  of  observation  is  to  be 
found  on  page  6  :  "One  or  more  observers  and  the  critic  teacher 
were  present  regularly  to  take  notes  on  what  was  said  and  done 
during  the  class  hour."  A  description  of  the  manner  of  keeping 
the  records  then  follows.  A  verbatim  report  of  all  of  the  daily 
records  is  included  in  the  appendix  of  this  study. 

Symonds,   Percival  AI.     "Study  Habits  of   High   School 

Pupils,"     Teachers    College    Record,    27:713-24,    April, 

1926. 

On  page  714,  the  author  gives  an  account  of  his  general 
plan  of  observation.     The  following  are  two  of  the  steps  in  the 


Techniques  of  Educational  Research  37 

procedure :  "Careful  and  undivided  attention  was  given  to  the 
behavior  of  a  single  boy  during  a  period  .  .  .  Every  act  of 
the  boy  was  entered  in  a  notebook." 

Stevens,  Romiett.  "The  Question  as  a  Measure  of  Effi- 
ciency in  Instruction,"  Teachers  College,  Columbia  Uni- 
versity Contributions  to  Education,  No.  48.  New  York : 
Bureau  of  Publications,  Columbia  University,  1912.  95  p. 

The  procedure  used  in  this  study  is  that  of  observation, 
analj^sis,  and  criticism  of  actual  questions  in  the  class  room.  For 
this  purpose  a  stenographic  record  of  twenty  lessons  was  secured. 

2.  Forms  in  which  used. 

a.  Raw. 

Monroe,   Walter  S.     "The   Duties   of   Men  Engaged  as 

Physical  Directors  or  Athletic  Coaches  in  High  Schools," 

University  of  Illinois  Bulletin,  Vol.  23,  No.  38,  Bureau 

of  Educational  Research  Bulletin  No.  30.    Urbana :  Uni- 

versit}-  of  Illinois,  1926.    22  p. 

This  investigation,  although  of  the  fact  finding  type,  is  a 
good  example  of  the  use  of  raw  data.  Various  tables  are  given 
in  which  the  information  presented  is  summarized.  The  reader 
will  note  that  no  statistical  procedures  have  been  employed  other 
than  that  of  tabulation,  the  determination  of  per  cents,  and  the 
computing  of  totals. 

Whipple,  Guy  M.  "Sex  Differences  in  Army  Alpha  Scores 
in  the  Secondary  School,"  Journal  of  Educational  Re- 
search, 15:269-275,  April,  1927. 

The  reader  is  given  information  relating  to  the  type  of 
data  used  in  this  investigation  on  page  269.  "The  method  of 
analyzing  this  material  was  simply  to  make  numerical  and 
graphic  distributions  of  the  scores  of  each  of  these  four  groups 
for  each  of  the  eight  tests  of  Army  Alpha,  and,  of  course,  for 
the  total  score  of  the  examination." 

b.  Transmuted. 

Odell,  Charles  W.  "The  Use  of  Intelligence  Tests  as  a 
Basis  for  vSchool  Organization  and  Instruction,"  Univer- 
sity of  Illinois  Bidletin,  Vol.  20,  No.  17,  Bureau  of  Edu- 
cational Research  Bulletin  No.  12.  Urbana :  University 
of  Illinois,  1922.    78  p. 

The  conversion  of  raw  data  into  derived  is  indicated  by  the 
following  sentence  from  page  10 :  "The  scores  made  upon  these 
tests  were  translated  into  mental  or  achievement  ages,  as  the 
case  might  be,  and  then  further  into  intelligence  and  achieve- 
ment quotients." 


38  Bulletin  No.  38 

Ross,  Clay  Campbell.  "The  Relation  Between  Grade 
School  Record  and  High  School  Achievement,"  Teachers 
College,  Columbia  University  Contributions  to  Education, 
No.  166.  New  York :  Bureau  of  Publications,  Columbia 
University,  1925.     70  p. 

The  use  of  transmuted  data  is  indicated  by  the  following 
sentence  from  page  11 :  "Grade-progress  and  age  at  completing 
the  eighth  grade,  calculated  in  half-years  to  nearest  birthda}', 
were  originally  entered  in  actual  gross  scores,  but  were  later 
converted  into  transmuted  scores  according  to  the  tables  given 
below."  On  page  14  the  reader  is  given  the  method  of  trans- 
muting letter  grades  into  numerical  ratings. 

Fleming,  Cecile  White.  "A  Detailed  Analysis  of  Achieve- 
ment in  the  High  School,"  Teachers  College,  Columbia 
University  Contributions  to  Education,  No.  196.  New 
York:  Bureau  of  Publications,  Columbia  University, 
1925.    209  p. 

Extensive  use  is  made  of  derived  data  in  this  study.  For 
example,  it  was  found  necessary  to  transmute  letter  marks  (A,  B, 
C,  D,  and  E)  into  numerical  values.  The  reader  is  given  a  good 
discussion  of  the  techniques  employed  in  the  third  chapter  en- 
titled, "Accumulation  and  Treatment  of  Data." 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Alexander,    Carter.     "Opportunities    for    Research    in    Educational 

Finance,"  Educational  Administration  and  Supervision,  9  :  209-222, 

April,  1923.    Also  in  The  Phi  Delta  Kappan,  5 :  5-8,  April,  1923. 

The  author  stresses  the  value  of  existing  data  by  saying,  "Many  of 
the  biggest  contributions  in  education  have  been  made  by  men  willing  to 
work  with  already  recorded  data."  The  point  made  by  Alexander  is  a 
good  one,  although  the  use  of  existing  data  may  be  over  emphasized  in 
many  cases.  Frequently  such  data  is  so  inaccurate  and  so  incomplete  that 
one  does  not  get  adequate  returns  for  his  investment. 

Alexander,  Carter.    School  Statistics  and  Publicity.    Boston :  Silver, 

Burdett  and  Company,  1919,  p.  58-71. 

The  reader  is  given  a  brief  discussion  of  the  methods  to  be  used  in 
the  actual  collecting  of  data..  Certain  information  concerning  sampling  will 
be  found  to  be  very  helpful. 

Alexander,  Carter.     "How  to  Equip  the  School  Administrator  with 

Methods  of  Locating  Data  which  will  Carry  Over  when  He  is  on 

the  Job,"  Teachers  College  Record,  28 :  890-99,  May,  1927. 

In  this  article,  the  reader  is  given  an  analysis  and  a  description  of  a 
general  technique  for  gathering  data  of  an  administrative  character.  It 
includes  a  critical  discussion  of  the  "school  survev"  method  on  pages 
896-899. 


Techniques  of  Educational  Research  39 

Alexander,  Carter.     Educational  Research.     New  York :  Teachers 
College,  Columbia  University,  1927.   41  p.   A  pamphlet. 

Six  criteria  are  given  on  page  3  for  the  evaluation  of  data.  Two  of 
them  are  as  follows  :  "Must  be  reliable  enough  to  warrant  basing  conclu- 
sions upon  them," — "Must  be  as  objective  as  the  field  of  study  permits." 

Buckingham,  B.  R.     "Accuracy,"  Journal  of  Educational  Research, 
8 :  63-64,  June,  1923.    An  editorial. 

This  consists  of  a  discussion  of  the  need  for  accuracy  in  the  conduc- 
tion of  an  investigation.  It  also  tells  what  accuracy  includes :  defining 
terms,  simplifying  procedure,  and  giving  statements  of  reliability. 

BuRRis,  W.  P.    "The  Case  Method  for  the  Study  of  Teaching,"  School 
and  Society,  15 :  121-130,  February  4,  1922. 

This  is  an  argument  for  the  utilization  of  the  case  method  in  educa- 
tional research.  "The  method  is  scientific  because  it  is  an  objective  and 
inductive  study  of  the  thing  itself,  and  loses  none  of  its  scientific  character 
because  based  upon  records  any  more  than  the  study  of  the  data  of  a 
laboratory  notebook  ceases  to  be  scientific  when  it  contains  a  record  of 
observed  phenomena." 

BuTTERFiELD,  Ernest  W.     "Educatioual   Surveys,"  Educational  Re- 
view, 68:  1-5,  June,  1924. 

This  article  is  critical  of  school  surveys.  The  point  is  made  that  a 
general  survey  interferes  with  the  regular  work  of  the  school.  The  writer 
appears  to  believe  that  such  surveys  are  usually  conducted  by  people  who 
like  to  meddle  in  school  affairs. 

Butterfield,  Ernest  W.     "The  Plenary  Inspiration  of  the  Dotted 
Line,"  Educational  Reviezv,  69 :  1-4,  January,  1925. 

The  research  worker  about  to  employ  the  questionnaire  method  in 
the  collection  of  data  should  be  sure  to  read  this  article.  It  will  engender 
in  him  a  very  worthwhile  critical  attitude  of  questionnaires  and  their  use. 

Fling,  Fred  Morrow.     The  Writing  of  History.    New  Haven:  Yale 
University  Press,  1920.     184  p. 

The  research  investigator  who  makes  use  of  historical  data  will  find 
this  book  of  service.  The  statement  is  made  that  the  historian  does  not 
deal  with  fact  but  with  the  "residue"  of  fact.  Such  sources  require  careful 
criticism  in  order  to  establish  their  validity.  Rules  are  given  for  the  testing 
of  evidence,  and  the  establishment  of  certainty.  The  book  ends  with  sug- 
gestions as  to  writing  of  history. 

Good,  Carter  V.  "Careless  Practices  in  Educational  Writings,"  School 
and  Society,  23  :  684-686,  May,  1926. 

An  argument  for  careful  organization  and  reporting  of  bibliograph- 
ical data.  The  author  stresses  the  importance  of  good  form,  and  gives  ref- 
erences to  certain  manuals  of  writing. 


40  Bulletin  Xo.  38 

JMcCall,  William  A.    Hoiv  to  Experiment  in  Education.   New  York: 

The  ^lacmillan  Company,  1923,  p.  214-217. 

Several  questions  are  stated  to  guide  the  investigator  in  the  formula- 
tion of  a  questionnaire.  For  example:  "Are  the  questions  unambiguous?" 
The  different  types  of  questionnaires  which  may  be  used  to  measure  degree 
of  preference  are  explained. 

MoxROE,  Walter  S.  and  Asher,  Ollie.  "A  Bibliography  of  Bibli- 
ographies." University  of  Illinois  Bulletin,  Vol.  24,  No.  44,  Bu- 
reau of  Educational  Research  Bulletin  No.  36.  Urbana :  Univer- 
sity of  Illinois,  1925.    60  p. 

The  research  worker  in  education  will  find  this  bulletin  invaluable 
when  compiling  a  bibliography  for  his  investigation. 

Park,  Robert  E.  and  Burgess,  Earnest  W.  Introduction  to  the 
Science  of  Sociology.  Chicago :  University  of  Chicago  Press, 
1921,  p.  43-60. 

The  reader  is  given  a  brief  discussion  of  the  nature  of  social  problems 
and  social  research.  A  bibliography  on  page  58  gives  several  references  to 
methods  of  sociological  investigation. 

RuGG,  Harold  O.  Statistical  Methods  Applied  to  Education.  New 
York:  Houghton  Mifflin  and  Compan}-,  1917,  Chapter  II. 

The  chapter  begins  with  an  outline  of  the  important  sources  of  origi- 
nal educational  data.  This  is  followed  by  a  discussion  of  the  reliability 
of  these  sotxrces.  The  chapter  ends  with  an  explanation  of  the  method  to 
be  used  in  formulating  a  questionnaire. 

Sears,  Jesse  B.  The  School  Survey.  Boston:  Houghton  Mifflin  Com- 
pany, 1925.    427  p. 

This  is  a  rather  exhaustive  treatment  of  the  technique  of  school 
survej'S.  It  is  stated  that  many  of  its  procedures  are  those  of  educational 
research.  For  this  reason  the  book  should  be  of  service  to  those  engaged 
in  other  types  of  research,  as  well  as  to  those  about  to  employ  the  survey 
method.  Survey  is  defined  as  "a  scientific  inquiry  which  obtains  facts 
about  the  present  efficiency  of  the  school  S3"stem,  and  on  the  basis  of  these 
facts  offers  constructive  proposals  for  desirable  improvements." 

Sturtevant,  Sarah  ]\I,  and  Hayes,  Harriet.  "The  Use  of  the  Inter- 
view in  Advisory  Work,"  Teachers  College  Record,  28:551-62. 
February,  1927. 

This  article  presents  to  the  reader  a  description  of  the  factors  involved 
in  the  interview,  the  limitations  of  the  interview,  method  of  successful 
interviews,  and  includes  a  selected  bibliography  of  the  uses  of  the  technique 
of  interviewing.  The  reader  will  find  this  description  of  the  technique 
of  interviewing  very  helpful. 

Thorxdike,  Edward  L.   Educational  Psychology,  Vol.  I.  New  York : 

Teachers  College,  Columbia  University,  1913,  p.  28-42. 

Information  is  given  pertaining  to  several  means  of  collecting  infor- 
mation relative  to  original  tendencies.     Sj'Stematic  observation,  concensus 


Techniques  of  Educational  Research  41 

of  opinion,  and  the  use  of  the  personal  judgment  of  the  author  are  dis- 
cussed and  evahiated. 

Toops,  Herbert  A.    "Validating  the  Questionnaire  Method,"  Journal 

of  Personnel  Research,  2:  153-169,  August,  1923. 

The  author  gives  reasons  for  the  disrepute  of  the  questionnaire 
method.  The  first  objection  is  that  only  a  fraction  of  the  questionnaires 
are  returned,  and  these  may  not  represent  the  group.  The  article  describes 
a  method  for  overcoming  this  objection. 

Wylie,  Andrew  T.  "To  What  Extent  May  We  Rely  Upon  the  Answers 
to  a  School  Questionnaire  ?"  The  Journal  of  Educational  Method, 
6:252-257,  February,  1927. 

The  validity  or  truthfulness  of  the  answers  of  a  questionnaire  was 
determined  by  means  of  other  sources  of  information.  The  conclusions  are 
drawn  that  the  answers  of  any  one  individual  are  not  to  be  given  too  great 
credence,  the  net  total  result  has  considerable  validity,  and  the  percentage 
of  correct  answers  on  the  whole  is  high.  Rules  are  given  for  the  formu- 
lation and  use  of  questionnaires. 


CHAPTER  IV 
ANALYZING,  ORGANIZING,  AND  SUMMARIZING  DATA 

Relation  of  analyzing  and  organizing  data  to  collecting  them. 
The  analysis  and  organization  of  data  depend  upon  the  form  in  which 
they  were  collected.  For  example,  when  data  are  taken  from  records 
or  printed  sources,  their  organization  may  be  facihtated  or  made  more 
difficult  by  the  form  in  which  they  were  copied.  Hence  this  phase  of 
educational  research  overlaps  that  described  in  the  preceding  chapter. 

Decisions  to  be  made.  The  phase  of  educational  research  de- 
scribed as  "analyzing,  organizing,  and  summarizing  data"  may  make 
great  demands  upon  the  investigator's  ingenuity.  There  are  many 
decisions  to  be  made,  especially  in  summarizing  data.  Typical  ques- 
tions are:  What  form  of  table  is  to  be  made?  How  large  intervals 
should  be  used?  How  may  the  data  be  summarized  without  obscuring 
significant  details?  Shall  one  large  complex  table  be  constructed,  or  a 
group  of  smaller  tables? 

Statistical  methods.  Much  of  the  handling  of  quantitative  data 
is  accomplished  by  standard  statistical  methods.  Since  these  methods 
are  described  and  illustrated  in  texts  on  statistics,  no  attempt  has  been 
made  to  illustrate  them  in  the  following  references.  However,  before 
an  average  or  coefficient  of  correlation  is  calculated,  the  investigator 
must  make  decisions.  In  some  instances  these  are  very  simple,  but 
frequently  an  experienced  investigator  may  need  to  experiment  before 
he  finally  decides  just  what  calculations  to  make. 


ILLUSTRATIVE  REFERENCES 
A.     Transference  from  original  sources. 

DoziER,  jMiriam.  "Confidential  Recommendations  as  a  Basis 
for  Selecting  Teachers,"  Journal  of  Educational  Re- 
searcJi,  14:325-355,  December,  1926. 

On  page  326  under  the  caption,  "Method  of  procedure  in 
selecting  quaHties,"  the  author  gives  information  concerning  the 
transferring  of  data  from  their  original  source,  letters  of 
recommendation,  to  their  classified  recording  on  eight  different 
charts. 

Ross,  Clay  Campbell.  "The  Relation  Between  Grade  School 
Record  and  High  School  Achievement,"   Teachers  Col- 

[42] 


I 


Techniques  of  Educational  Research  43 

lege,   Columbia    University   Contributions  to   Education, 

No.  166.    New  York:  Bureau  of  Publications,  Columbia 

University,  1925.    70  p. 

On  page  9  is  shown  the  "cumulative  record  card"  used  in 
this  study.  Reasons  are  given  for  certain  details  in  the  form  of 
this  card.  For  example,  entries  are  grouped  in  threes  to  aid  in 
recording  and  tabulating.  A  buff  card  was  used  for  boys,  and  a 
white  card  for  girls.  Other  details  are  given  which  made  for 
efficient  handling  of  the  data. 

Meek,  Lois  Hayden.  "A  Study  of  Learning  and  Retention 
in  Young  Children,"  Teachers  College,  Columbia  Uni- 
versity Contributions  to  Education,  No.  164.  New  York : 
Bureau  of  Publications,  Columbia  University,  1925.  96  p. 

On  page  3  is  shown  the  record  sheet  used  by  the  experi- 
menters in  this  study.  It  is  in  tabular  form,  and  the  numbers  in 
the  "stub"  of  the  table  aid  the  experimenter  in  controlHng  the 
experiment.     Space  is  given  for  remarks. 

Jones,  Walter  Benton.  "Job  Analysis  and  Curriculum 
Construction  in  the  Metal  Trades  Industry,"  Teachers 
College,  Columbia  University  Contributions  to  Educa- 
tion, No.  227.  New  York :  Bureau  of  Publications,  Co- 
lumbia University,  1926.    104  p. 

A  trade  element  chart  is  given  on  page  35  which  serves  the 
function  of  summarizing  a  portion  of  the  data.  Such  a  chart 
exhibits  data  in  a  convenient  form  for  further  classification  and 
use. 

Heilman,  J.  D.  "Methods  of  Reporting  the  College  Teach- 
er's Load  and  Administrative  Efficiency,"  Educational 
Administration  and  Supervision,  11 :  167-87,  March,  1925. 

Information  is  given  in  regard  to  methods  used  to  record 
data.  On  page  168  will  be  found  a  reproduction  of  one  of  the 
record  blanks  used. 


B.     Interpretation  by  means  of  graphs. 

1.  Frequency  polygon. 

Strachan,  Lexie.  "Distribution  of  Intelligence  Quotients  of 
Twenty-two  Thousand  Primary  School  Children,"  Jour- 
nal of  Educational  Research,  14:  169-177,  October,  1926. 

Frequency  polygons  are  used  to  ilkistrate  the  distribution 
of  I.  Q.  among  certain  groups  of  white  and  colored  children. 
The  polygons  are  superimposed  on  each  other,  showing  the  ex- 
tent of  variation  between  the  groups. 


44  BuLLETix  Xo.  38 

West,  Paul  V.  "A  Critical  Study  of  the  Right  Minus 
Wrong  ^Method,"  Journal  of  Educational  Research,  8:  1- 
9,  June,  1923. 

On  page  7  will  be  found  a  graph  in  which  two  frequency 
polj-gons  are  shown  together.  The  method  used  clearly  indicates 
the  differences  in  distribution  of  the  two  groups. 

2.  Frequency  curve. 

Kirk,  Johx  G.  "Handwriting  Survey  to  Determine  Grade 
Standards,"  Journal  of  Educational  Research,  13:185, 
March,  1926. 

The  distribution  in  quality  of  one  thousand  specimens  of 
social  correspondence  is  represented  on  page  185.  Such  a  smooth 
curve  has  the  advantage  that  it  eliminates  some  of  the  irregu- 
larities of  the  frequency  polygon,  and  therefore  better  represents 
the  true  conditions  of  the  whole  body  of  data  of  which  a  part  is 
represented. 

3.  Histogram. 

Breed,  F.  S.  and  Breslich,  E.  R.  "Intelligence  Tests  and 
the  Classification  of  Pupils,"  School  Revieii.',  30:56-57, 
January,  1922. 

Four  histograms  are  given  in  which  the  individual  cases  are 
represented  by  means  of  squares.  The  individual  student  may  be 
identified,  if  necessary,  by  the  numbers  which  appear  within  the 
square  representing  his  scores  on  two  tests.  Certain  squares  are 
shaded  to  indicate  displacement  of  individual  cases.  Such  a  figure 
presents  graphically,  and  in  a  simimarized  form  much  more  than 
could  be  gained  from  the  context. 

Aberxathy,  Ethel  ]\I.  "Correlations  in  Physical  and  ^len- 
tal  Growth,"  Journal  of  Educational  Psychology,  16:  539- 
546,  November,  1925. 

The  reader  will  find  a  reproduction  of  a  histogram  on  cross 
section  paper  given  on  page  539.  This  might  pro\e  useful  for  an 
unpublished  thesis,  but  is  not  to  be  recommended  for  a  published 
report. 

Geiger,  Ruth.  "A  Study  in  Reading  Diagnosis,"  Journal  of 
Educational  Research,  8 :  283-300,  November,  1923. 

The  reader  will  find  several  examples  of  the  frequency 
histogram  in  this  article.  Individual  pupils  are  represented  by 
numbered  squares. 


Techniques  of  Educational  Research  45 

4.  Normal  curve  with  experimental  curve. 

West,   Paul  V.      "A   Critical   Study  of   the   Right   Minus 

Wrong  Method,"  Journal  of  Educational  Research,  8:  1- 

9,  June,  1923. 

A  frequency  polygon  is  given  on  page  3,  upon  which  a 
normal  frequency  curve  has  been  superimposed.  This  serves  to 
illustrate  that  the  distribution  of  scores,  except  for  minor  devia- 
tions, falls  according  to  the  laws  of  chance. 

Thorndike,  E.  L.  and  Bregman,  E.  O.     "On  the  Form  of 

Distribution  of  Intellect  in  the  Ninth  Grade,"  Journal  of 

Educational  Research,  10:271-278,  November,  1924. 

Several  histograms  are  given  in  this  study  which  are  based 
upon  experimental  frequency  distributions.  The  normal  curve 
is  superimposed  on  each  of  these,  and  indicates  very  clearly  the 
extent  of  departure  from  normal  frequency. 

5.  Bar  graph. 

Fort,  L.  M.    "College  Admission  Requirements  in  the  North 

Central  Association,"  School  Review,  31  :  683,  November, 

1923. 

The  author  uses  a  bar  graph  to  compare  the  number  and 
percentage  of  institutions  of  the  East,  of  the  West,  and  of  the 
North  Central  Association  in  granting  credit  for  certain  of  the 
newer  high  school  subjects.  The  adjacent  bars  representing  the 
three  differenU  classes  of  schools  show  very  clearly  the  extent  of 
the  differences. 

Bishop,  Omen.     "What  is  Measured  by  Intelligence  Tests?" 

Journal  of  Educational  Research,  9 :  29-38,  January,  1924. 

On  page  37,  the  reader  will  find  an  example  of  the  bar 
graph.  In  this  case  it  is  used  to  indicate  the  difference  in 
individual  scores  before  and  after  study. 

MoEHLMAN,  Arthur  B.     "Child  Accounting,"  Journal   of 

Educational  Research,  9  :  293-304,  April,  1924. 

On  pages  295  and  297  are  given  bar  graphs  representing 
the  attendance  and  non-attendance  of  school  children  in  the 
United  States,  and  in  the  city  of  Detroit. 

6.  Scatter  diagram,  or  correlation  chart. 

Ros.s,  Clay  Campbell.  "The  Relation  Between  Grade  School 
Records  and  High  School  Achievement,"  Teachers  Col- 
lege,  Columbia    University   Contributions   to   Education, 


46  Bulletin  No.  38 

No.  166.    New  York:  Bureau  of  Publications,  Columbia 

University,  1925.  70  p. 

On  page  25  is  given  a  scatter  diagram  or  correlation  chart 
which  indicates  graphically  the  degree  of  relationship  between 
two  sets  of  paired  facts,  average  standing  in  first  year  high 
school,  and  composite  score  from  five  grade  school  factors. 

Herring,  John  P.  "Reliability  of  the  Stanford  and  the  Her- 
ring Revision  of  the  Binet-Simon  Tests,"  Journal  of 
Educational  Psychology,  15  :  217-223,  April,  1924. 

The  reader  is  given  an  example  of  a  correlation  scatter 
diagram  on  page  219.  It  is  used  to  show  the  relationship  be- 
tween I.  Q.'s  obtained  by  the  use  of  two  tests  on  the  same  group. 

C.     Summarization  by  means  of  tables. 

1.  Simple  table. 

Feingold,  Gustave  a.  "Intelligence  of  the  First  Generation 
of  Immigrant  Groups,"  Journal  of  Educational  Psycho- 
logy, 15:65-82,  February,  1924. 

Two  simple  tables  are  given  on  page  70.  It  will  be  observed 
that  a  heavy  line  is  given  at  the  tops  of  tables  in  this  journal, 
in  place  of  the  double  line  usually  seen. 

Lester,  John  A.    "Spelling  Ability  and  Meaning  Vocabulary 

as  Indications  of  Other  Abilities,"  Journal  of  Educational 

Psychology,  16:  175-181,  Marcb,  1925. 

Several  examples  of  simple  tables  will  be  found  in  this 
article.  For  example  Table  1  shows  the  correlation  of  spelling 
ability  with  the  following  school  subjects:  French,  Latin, 
Geometry  and  Algebra.  The  word  "correlation"  appears  in  the 
"stub." 

2.  Open  table. 

SiEHL,  B.  H.     "A  Survey  of  a  Night  High  School,"  School 

Reviezv,  31 :  535,  September,  1923. 

On  page  535  will  be  found  a  good  example  of  a  simple  open 
table.  This  type  is  useful  when  one  has  a  list  of  items  for 
which  there  is  but  one  or  two  columns  of  figures. 

Rainey,  Homer  P.  "A  Study  of  the  Curricula  of  State 
Teachers  Colleges,"  Educational  Administration  and  Su- 
pervision, 11:465-472,  October,  1925. 

The  reader  will  find  a  good  example  of  a  simple  open  table 
on  page  466.     Details  of  form  should  be  noted. 

Douglas,  O.  B.     "The  Present  Status  of  the  Introductory; 
Course  in  Educational  Psychology  in  American  Institu- 


i 


Techniques  of  Educational  Research  47 

tions  of  Learning,"  Journal  of  Educational  Psychology, 

16:396-408,  September,  1925. 

On  page  401  will  be  found  an  example  of  a  simple  open 
table.  On  page  407  is  an  example  of  a  simple  open  table  doubled 
upon  itself. 

3.  Table  doubled  upon  itself. 

Wager,  Ralph   E.     "Some  Outcomes  of  the  Teaching  of 

History,"  School  Review,  31 :  215,  March,  1923. 

On  page  215  will  be  found  a  good  example  of  a  table 
doubled  upon  itself.  An  economy  of  space  is  attained  with  this 
type  of  table,  when  dealing  with  a  long  list  of  items  for  which 
there  are  but  one  or  two  columns  of  figures. 

4.  Table  with  subdivisions. 

Proctor,  William  M.     "The  Junior  College  in  California," 

School  Review,  31 :  366,  May,  1923. 

On  page  366  will  be  found  a  table  containing  subdivisions, 
and  second  subdivisions.  For  example,  vmder  the  heading 
"Academic  Degrees,"  are  to  be  found  such  sub-headings  as 
"Ph.  D.,"  "A.  M.,"  and  "A.  B.,"  with  second  sub-headings  "Num- 
ber" and  "Percentage."  Columns  of  figures  appear  below  these 
second  sub-headings. 

Price,  E.  D.     "A  Plan  of  Classifying  Pupils,"  Journal  of 

Educational  Research,  12 :  341-348,  December,  1925. 

On  page  344  will  be  found  a  table  containing  subdivisions. 
The  individual  cases  for  the  years  1918-19  and  1922-23  are  sub- 
divided into  three  classes,  per  cent  promoted,  per  cent  retained, 
and  per  cent  dropped. 

5.  Table  with  varied  divisions. 

Proctor,  William  M.     "The  Junior  College  in  California," 

School  Review,  31 :  365,  May,  1923. 

The  table  given  on  page  365  is  a  good  example  of  one 
containing  varied  divisions.  The  first  two  columns  have  single 
headings,  the  next  two  fall  under  sub-headings  common  to  one 
heading,  and  the  last  five  columns  have  five  sub-headings  under 
one  principal  heading.  Such  a  table  enables  a  writer  to  sum- 
marize a  large  body  of  data. 

Chassell,  Clara  F.  "The  Promotion  Plan  in  the  Horace 
Mann  Elementary  School  and  Kindergarten,"  Educa- 
tional Administration  and  Supervision,  9:445-447,  Oc- 
tober, 1923. 

A  table  of  varied  divisions  is  given  on  page  446.  The  dif- 
ferent grades  are  represented  in  the  "stub."  "Psychological 
tests"   is   subdivided   into   two   divisions,   "Educational   tests"   is 


48  Bulletin  No.  38 

subdivided   into  three   divisions,   while   "Citizenship   scales,"   and 
"Teachers'  judgments"  are  not  subdivided  at  all. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Alexander,  Carter.    School  Statistics  and  Publicity.   Boston:  Silver, 

Burdett  and  Company,  1919,  p.  71-89. 

The  efficient  handling  of  data  frequently  calls  for  considerable  judg- 
ment in  deciding  what  procedures  to  use.  The  investigator  will  find  this 
discussion  very  helpful  in  deciding  the  kind  of  cards,  blanks,  paper,  and 
tables  to  be  used  in  the  recording  of  data.  Information  is  given  as  to 
methods  of  summarizing  and  checking  of  items. 

McCall,  Willi.\m  a.     Hozv  to  Measure  in  Education.     New  York : 

The  ]\Iacmillan  Company,  1922,  Chapters  XII  and  XIII, 

Various  methods  of  tabulation  are  given,  along  wath  information 
concerning  their  respective  values.  The  form  of  tables  is  discussed,  and 
reasons  are  given  for  the  adherence  to  certain  conventions.  Chapter  XIII 
contains  a  worth  while  discussion  of  graphic  methods. 

Odell,  C.  W.   Educational  Statistics.     New  York :  Century  Company, 

1925.    318  p. 

Chapters  I  and  II  contain  much  that  will  be  helpful  to  the  research 
w^orker  in  coming  to  a  decision  as  to  what  procedures  should  be  used  in  the 
handling  of  data.  Discussions  are  given  in  regard  to  such  things  as 
significant  figures,  the  grouping  of  measures  into  classes,  width  of  class 
interval,  the  frequency  polygon,  histogram,  ogives,  and  smoothed  curves. 

RuGG,   Harold  O.    A   Primer  of  Graphics  and  Statistics.    Boston : 

Houghton  Mifflin  Company,  1925.     142  p. 

Information  is  given  relative  to  the  graphing  of  frequency  distribu- 
tions. This  is  followed  by  the  application  of  graphic  methods  to  such 
things  as  correlation,  and  the  expression  of  a  variety  of  statistics. 

RuGG,  Harold  O.    Statistical  Methods  Applied  to  Education.     New 

York:  Houghton  Mifflin  Company,  1917,  Chapters  III  and  X, 

In  Chapter  III,  the  reader  is  given  explanations  of  certain  important 
phases  of  tabulation.  The  use  of  different  types  of  cards,  sheets,  and  note- 
books is  discussed.  The  chapter  also  contains  a  discussion  of  tabulating 
machines.  Chapter  X  gives  methods  for  the  preparation  of  tables  and 
graphs. 

Williams,  Harold  J.  GrapJiic  Methods  in  Education.  Boston:  Hough- 
ton Mifflin  Company,  1924.    319  p. 

The  second  chapter  contains  information  relative  to  the  instruments 
necessary  for  the  construction  of  charts  and  graphs.  The  following  chap- 
ters contain  many  illustrative  examples  which  should  be  very  helpful  to 
the  novice  in  summarizing  his  data  by  graphic  methods. 


CHAPTER  V 
DETERMINING  CONCLUSIONS 

Formulating  conclusions.  The  conclusions  are  essentially  the 
answers  to  the  questions  specified  in  the  definition  of  the  problem. 
Hence,  in  formulating  the  conclusions,  an  investigator  is  merely  at- 
tempting to  answer  the  questions  that  have  guided  him  throughout  the 
research.  These  answers  should  be  formulated  very  carefully  so  that 
they  will  express  precisely  what  the  writer  intended  to  say.  It  may  be 
that  the  data  justify  only  tentative  or  partial  answers.  If  so,  the 
statements  should  clearly  indicate  this  fact. 

Hypotheses  and  vertification.  Determining  conclusions  corre- 
sponds very  closely  to  two  steps  of  reflective  thinking,  formulation  of 
hypotheses  and  verification.  In  determining  the  answers  to  the  ques- 
tions of  the  problem  the  investigator  formulates  tentative  statements 
and  then  compares  them  with  the  data  as  a  means  of  verification. 
Sometimes  the  meaning  of  the  data  is  obscure  and  considerable  ingenu- 
ity is  required  to  formulate  a  hypothesis.^ 

Being  scientific.^  To  be  scientific  is  to  know  one's  data  and  to 
use  them  with  full  recognition  of  the  defects  that  they  may  possess. 
Hence  in  determining  conclusions,  especially  in  verifying  tentative 
formulations,  the  investigator  should  have  clearly  in  mind  all  the  limit- 
ations of  his  data.  It  is  obvious  that  he  cannot  do  this  unless  he  knows 
his  data.  One  who  has  not  made  an  extended  and  critical  study  of 
data  is  usually  ignorant  of  their  limitations.  In  educational  research 
we  seldom  work  with  perfect  data.  Sometimes  their  imperfections  are 
not  significant  but  sometimes  they  are.^  The  investigator  is  responsible 
for  knowing  his  data.  Failure  to  know  them  and  use  them  intelligently 
means  that  he  is  not  scientific. 

Determining  conclusions  versus  interpreting  data.  There  appear 
to  be  two  concepts  of  educational  research.  One  of  these  was  described 
in  Chapter  I.     According  to  the  other,  the  problem  and  its  definition 


iFor  a  discussion  of  the  interpretation  of  two  derived  measures,  see  Odell,  Charles  W'. 
"The  Interpretation  of  the  Probable  Error  and  the  Coefficient  of  Correlation,"  University  of 
Illinois  Bulletin,  Vol.  23,  No.  52,  Bureau  of  Educational  Research  Bulletin  No.  32.  Urbana: 
University  of  Illinois,   1926.    49  p. 

-An  illustration  of  being  scientific  is  furnished  by  Odell,  Charles  W.  "Are  College 
Students  a  Select  Group?"  University  of  Illinois  Bulletin,  Vol.  24-,  No.  36.  Bureau  of 
Educational  Research  Bulletin  No.  34.  Urbana:  University  of  Illinois,  1927.  45  p.  In  this 
study  the  author  calls  attention  to  certain  faults  of  his  data  and  then  shows  that  the  nature 
of  these  faults  is  such  that  they  do  not  seriously  weaken  his  conclusions. 

^For  a  discussion  of  errors  in  educational  measurements,  see  Monroe,  Walter  S.  "The 
Constant  and  Variable  Errors  of  Educational  Measurements,"  University  of  Illinois  Bulletin, 
Vol.  21,  No.  10,  Bureau  of  Educational  Research  Bulletin  No.  15.  Urbana:  University  of 
Illinois,    1923.    30  p. 

[49] 


50  Bulletin"  Xo.  38 

are  not  made  basic.  The  data  collected  are  not  necessarily  restricted 
to  those  called  for  by  the  problem.  In  fact,  investigators  who  have 
this  concept  of  education  frequently  collect  data  without  any  clearly 
defined  problem  in  mind,  or  they  may  merely  take  data  that  have 
accumulated  as  a  product  of  operating  a  school  or  engaging  in  some 
other  activity.  In  such  cases,  the  data  are  looked  upon  as  material  to 
be  interpreted  rather  than  used  as  a  means  of  answering  certain  ques- 
tions. As  a  result,  we  have  reports  of  educational  research  that  pre- 
sent a  long  list  of  "conclusions"  which  are  demonstrated  or  suggested 
by  the  data,  but  which  are  not  answers  to  questions  raised  at  the  be- 
ginning of  the  work.  Although  there  are  occasions  when  it  is  profitable 
to  analyze,  organize,  and  summarize  accumulations,  such  activity  is  not 
educational  research  as  conceived  by  the  authors  of  this  bulletin.  Conse- 
quently, the  references  illustrate  the  determination  of  answers  to  ques- 
tions rather  than  the  interpretation  of  data. 

ILLUSTRATIVE   REFERENCES 

A.     Statement  of  conclusions. 

1.  Concise  statements. 

a.  Answers    specifically    connected    with    questions    asked    in 
statement  of  problem. 

Maddocks,  Carl  \\".    'The  Factor  of  Intelligence  in  School 

Failures,"  School  Review,  35  :  602-11,  October,  1927. 

This  study  gives  the  reader  an  excellent  example  of  con- 
clusions specifically  related  to  the  questions  expressed  in  the 
statement  of  the  problem.  For  example,  in  answer  to  the  follow- 
ing question:  "Is  intelligence  a  factor  in  school  failures?"  the 
following  answer  is  given :  "Failure  in  school  work  indicates  a 
low  t\-pe  of  mentality."  Another  question  was :  "Do  teachers 
think  that  inferior  mental  ability"  causes  manj-  pupils  to  fail?" 
Its  answer  is  stated :  "Teachers  think  that  school  failures  are 
due  to  low  mentalit}';  this  is  contrarj'  to  the  general  opinion  that 
teachers  do  not  appreciate  the  degree  of  mentality  of  pupils, 
especially  in  the  elementar\-  schools." 

Powers,  Samuel  Ralph.  "A  Diagnostic  Study  of  the  Sub- 
ject ^Matter  of  High  School  Chemistry,"  Teachers  College, 
Columbia  University  Contributions  to  Education,  Xo. 
149.  Xew  York :  Bureau  of  Publications,  Columbia  Uni- 
versity, 1924.    84  p. 

The  problem  is  stated  in  the  form  of  several  related  ques- 
tions on  page  3.  The  purpose  of  each  of  the  next  five  chapters 
is  to  suggest  the  answer  to  one  or  more  of  these  questions.     At 


I 


Techniques  of  Educatioxal  Research  51 

the  ends  of  each  of  these  chapters  will  be  found  conclusions. 
The  seventh  chapter  makes  use  of  the  findings  of  the  investiga- 
tion in  recommending  certain  changes  in  the  subject  matter  of 
high  school  chemistrj-,  and  in  suggesting  certain  topics  for  further 
studies. 

b.  Conclusions  specifically  connected  to  declarative  statements 
of  problems. 

Anibel,  Fred  G.  "Comparative  Effectiveness  of  the  Lec- 
ture-Demonstration and  Individual  Laboratory  Method," 
Journal  of  Educational  Research,  13  :  355-65,  May,  1926. 

The  conclusions  are  given  to  the  reader  in  several  concise 
statements.  The  problem  demanded  a  comparison  of  two  meth- 
ods. The  conclusions  deal  with  different  points  of  comparison 
such  as  the  factors  of  immediate  and  delayed  retention,  the  effect 
on  brighter  students,  the  time  of  presentation,  and  the  compara- 
tive cost. 

AvERiLL,  Laurence  A.  and  Mueller,  Alfred  D.    "Normal 

School  Students  in  Two-Year  and  Four- Year  Courses," 

Educational  Administration  and  Supervision,   11  :  52-55, 

January,  1925. 

The  problem  is  given  in  a  single  declarative  statement,  but 
it  suggests  several  phases.  Each  of  these  phases  is  given  a  place 
as  a  topic  in  the  body  of  the  report.  On  page  54  will  be  found 
conclusions,  each  of  which  is  related  to  one  of  the  phases. 

2.  General  statements. 

Helseth,  Inga  O.  ''Children's  Thinking,"  Teachers  Col- 
lege, Columbia  University  Contrihutions  to  Education, 
No.  209.  New  York :  Bureau  of  Publications,  Colum- 
bia University,  1926,  p.  74-76. 

A  general  interpretation  of  the  data  is  given  under  the 
caption,  "Conclusions."  Diff'erent  phases  of  the  investigation  are 
discussed  in  such  a  way  as  to  bring  out  certain  results  of  the 
study.  For  example,  the  author  states  that  at  the  beginning  of 
the  3'ear  the  pupils  sat  passively  back  and  waited  for  the  teacher. 
At  the  end  of  the  year  the  pupils  were  proposing  questions, 
looking  up  references  for  themselves,  and  going  about  the  co- 
operative solving  of  problems.  This  discussion  is  summarized 
by  four  general  conclusions,  the  first  of  which  may  be  given : 
"Children  are  capable  of  asking  and  answering  for  themselves 
good  questions  about  history." 

Brueckxer,  Leo  J.  "The  Status  of  Certain  Basic  Latin 
Skills,"  Journal  of  Educational  Research,  9:390-402, 
May,  1924. 

After  a  brief  statement  of  the  limitations  of  data,  nine 
general   conclusions   are   given.     Two   of   these   may   be   given : 


52  Bulletin  No.  38 

"There  is  a  great  variation  in  the  scores  of  pupils  on  all  tests 
for  each  semester's  training.  This  is  indicated  by  the  wide 
range  between  the  scores  of  individuals." — "The  ability  measured 
by  the  Godsey  sentence  test  shows  a  steady  increase  from  the 
second  to  the  eighth  semester." 

Ross,  Clay  Campbell.  "The  Relation  Between  Grade 
School  Record  and  High  School  Achievement,"  Teach- 
ers College,  Columbia  University  Contributions  to  Edu- 
cation, No.  166.  New  York :  Bureau  of  Publications, 
Columbia  University,  1925,  p.  67-70. 

The  reader  is  given  several  general  conclusions  in  which 
use  is  made  of  certain  derived  measures  such  as  the  coefficient 
of  correlation.    Two  tables  appear  among  the  conclusions. 

B.     Statement  of  limitations  in  conclusions. 

1.  Recognition  of  limitation  due  to  faulty  or  incomplete  data. 

Crawford,  C.  C.  "The  Correlation  Between  College  Lecture 
Notes  and  Quiz  Papers,"  Journal  of  Educational  Re- 
search, 12:282-91,  November,  1925. 

The  reader  is  informed  of  the  possibility  of  a  fault  in  the 
data :  "The  reader  should  bear  in  mind  that  the  results  of  these 
studies  do  not  prove  with  certainty  that  the  taking  and  reviewing 
on  the  notes  caused  the  quiz  results.  It  is  possible  that  some 
third  factor  may  be  responsible  for  the  correlations  which  have 
been  found  to  exist." 

Garrison,  S.  C.  and  Robinson,  M.  S.  "A  Study  of  Re- 
Tests,"  Journal  of  Educational  Research,  11  :  190-96, 
March,  1925. 

A  fault  in  the  data  is  indicated  by  the  following  statement 
from  the  conclusions :  "The  results  presented  in  this  study  are 
not  typical,  since  the  subjects  had  had  an  unusual  amount  of 
practice  in  taking  tests  before  these  data  were  secured." 

HuLTEN,  C.  E.     "A  Study  of  the  Speed  of  Upper  Grade 

Reading,"  Journal  of  Educational  Research,  10:141-48, 

September,  1924. 

The  author  recognizes  a  defect  in  the  data  by  stating: 
"Because  of  the  small  number  of  subjects  included,  these  experi- 
ments should  not  be  considered  conclusive." 

2.  Recognition  of  danger  of  generalization. 

Run,  John.  "The  Small  High  School,"  Teachers  College, 
Columbia    University    Contributions   to    Education,    No. 


if 


Techniques  of  Educational  Research  53 

236.   New  York :  Bureau  of  Publications,  Columbia  Uni- 
versity, 1926,  p.  136. 

The  author  begins  his  conclusions  with  the  following  state- 
ment :  "At  the  outset  it  should  be  clearly  understood  that  such 
conclusions  as  are  reached  as  a  result  of  this  investigation  apply- 
only  to  the  five  schools  included  in  the  study  and  not  to  small 
high  schools  in  general."  In  this  way  the  author  prevents  gen- 
eralization on  the  basis  of  insufficient  data. 

CoY^  Genevieve  L.  "The  Interests,  Abilities,  and  Achieve- 
ments of  a  Special  Class  for  Gifted  Children,"  Teachers 
College,  Columbia  University  Contributions  to  Educa- 
tion, No.  131.  New  York:  Bureau  of  Publications,  Co- 
lumbia University,  1923,  p.  187. 

Conclusions  are  given  at  the  end  of  each  chapter.  An 
explicit  recognition  of  defects  in  the  data  is  given  in  the  follow- 
ing statement :  "But  the  number  of  children  enrolled  in  this  class 
was  too  few  to  make  it  possible  to  generalize  from  these  con- 
clusions, and  to  sa}',  'These  statements  will  hold  for  all  children 
of  similar  intelligence,  under  similar  conditions.'  Our  results 
show  a  tendency  only." 

Alderman,  Grover  H.  "Improving  Comprehension  Ability 
in  Silent  Reading,"  Journal  of  Educational  Research, 
13:11-21,  January,  1926. 

The  author  gives  the  reader  the  following  caution  in  regard 
to  generalizing  on  the  basis  of  his  study.  "The  conclusions 
apply  in  strictness  only  to  teaching  done  under  similar  circum- 
stances." 

C.     Application  of  conclusions. 

1.  Suggestions  for  application  to  practice. 

Irion,  T.  W.  H.  "Comprehension  Difficulties  of  Ninth 
Grade  Students  in  the  Study  of  Literature,"  Teacliers 
College,  Columbia  University  Contributions  to  Educa- 
tion, No.  189.  New  York :  Bureau  of  Publications,  Co- 
lumbia University,  1925,  p.  73-74. 

Under  the  caption,  "Pedagogic  Implications,"  the  reader  is 
given  advice  concerning  the  application  of  conclusions.  The  fol- 
lowing statements  are  made  :  "The  study  which  we  have  reported 
finds  its  chief  justification  in  the  pedagogic  applications  which 
follow  easily  from  the  obtained  results.  Therefore,  in  conclud- 
ing, it  is  essential  that  we  summarize  the  more  obvious  pedagogic 
implications  of  our  findings,  keeping  in  mind  the  restrictions  and 
limitations  imposed  by  the  conditions  circumscribing  our  investi- 
gation." 


54  Bulletin  No.  38 

Steele,  Robert  M.  "A  Study  of  Teacher  Training  in  Ver- 
mont," Teachers  College,  Columbia  University  Contri- 
butions to  Education,  No.  243.  New  York :  Bureau  of 
Publications,  Columbia  University,  1926.     109  p. 

The  last  chapter  of  the  monograph  is  devoted  to  summary, 
conckisions,  and  recommendations.  The  summary  consists  of 
four  paragraphs  in  which  are  traced  the  contents  of  the  preced- 
ing four  chapters.  Thirteen  separate  conckisions  are  then  given, 
and  are  followed  by  several  pages  of  recommendations.  The 
reason  for  giving  these  recommendations  is  stated :  "From  the 
facts  set  forth  in  this  study,  it  is  clear  that  to  regain  its  earlier 
place  of  leadership  among  the  states  in  education  and  to  provide 
the  children  of  the  commonwealth  with  teachers  comparable  in 
training  to  those  in  other  New  England  states,  Vermont  must 
take  immediate  steps  to  place  its  teacher-training  institutions 
upon  a  higher  level  of  efficiency.  To  this  end  the  following 
recommendations  are  made :". 

2.  Suggestion  of  problems  for  further  investigation. 

Irion,  T.  W.  H.  "Comprehension  Difficulties  of  Ninth 
Grade  Students  in  the  Study  of  Literature,"  Teachers 
College,  Columbia  University  Contributions  to  Educa- 
tion, No.  189.  New  York :  Bureau  of  Publications,  Co- 
lumbia University,  1925,  p.  72-73. 

The  investigation  led  to  the  discovery  of  certain  problems 
in  need  of  solution.  Six  of  the  most  important  of  these  prob- 
lems are  given.  The  first  of  them  grows  directly  out  of  one  of 
the  conclusions. 

Ullrich,  Oscar  A.     "The  Efifect  of  Required  Themes  on 

Learning,"  Journal  of  Educational  Research,  14 :  294-303, 

November,  1926. 

The  reader  is  given  the  following  statement  in  the  conclu- 
sions which  suggests  further  investigation  :  "The  results  of  this 
study  point  to  a  question  that  seems  to  lie  deeper  than  the  one 
here  investigated,  that  is  the  question  of  motivation  of  theme 
work — a  problem  which  seems  to  demand  investigation." 

RuFi,  John.  "The  Small  High  School,"  Teachers  College, 
Columbia  University  Contributions  to  Education,  No. 
236.  New  York :  Bureau  of  Publications,  Columbia  Uni- 
versity, 1926,  p.  141. 

The  author  does  not  feel  justified  in  making  any  general- 
izations on  the  basis  of  his  data  other  than :  "It  is  not  too  much 
to  say  that  this  study  gives  additional  reasons  for  seriously  ques- 
tioning the  value  and  efficiency  of  the  small  high  school  in  gen- 
eral. It  clearly  shows  the  need  for  further  study  and  educational 
investigation  of  this  very  important  part  of  our  educational 
system." 


Techniques  of  Educational  Research  55 

BIBLIOGRAPHY 

Courtis,  S.  A.  "The  Validation  of  Statistical  Procedure,"  Journal  of 
Educational  Research,  12:31-40,  June,  1925. 

The  appropriateness  of  the  statistical  procedure  to  the  situation  bears 
a  close  relationship  to  the  validity  of  conclusions  drawn  from  the  data. 
"When  a  non-valid  statistical  method  is  used,  the  conclusion  reached  de- 
parts from  the  truth  to  the  degree  to  which  the  method  is  not  valid." 
The  author  further  states,  "It  goes  without  saying  that  the  careful  worker 
who  reports  selected  data  will  report  also  the  items  excluded,  the  method 
of  selection,  and  a  discussion  of  the  validity  of  the  method." 

Click,  H.  N.  "Effect  of  Practice  on  Intelligence  Tests,"  University 
of  Illinois  Bulletin,  Vol.  23,  No.  3,  Bureau  of  Educational  Re- 
search Bulletin  No.  27.  Urbana :  University  of  Illinois,  1925. 
23  p. 

In  investigations  where  use  is  made  of  intelligence  tests  it  is  well  to 
consider  the  possibility  of  practice  effect.  Conclusions  derived  from  intel- 
ligence scores  may  be  erroneous  unless  such  factors  are  taken  into  account. 

Madsen,  I.  N.  "Intelligence  as  a  Factor  in  School  Progress,"  School 
and  Society,  15:283-288,  March,  1922. 

Madsen,  I.  N.    "Anent  Criteria  of  Educational  Research,"  School  and 

Society,  19:224-225,  February,  1924. 

The  first  reference  given  above  is  to  a  study  which  received  some- 
what severe  criticism  from  Brooks.^  The  critic  states  that  Madsen  has 
based  his  conclusions  upon  data  from  which  relevant  items  have  been 
excluded.     Madsen's  reply  to  his  critic  is  given  in  the  second  reference. 

Monroe,  Walter  S.  "The  Constant  and  Variable  Errors  of  Educa- 
tional Measurements,"  University  of  Illinois  Bulletin,  Vol.  21,  No. 
10,  Bureau  of  Educational  Research  Bulletin  No.  15.  Urbana: 
University  of  Illinois,  1923.    30  p. 

In  the  interpretation  of  certain  statistical  data  an  understanding  of 
the  magnitude  of  the  errors  is  essential.  The  research  worker  will  find 
much  in  this  bulletin  to  aid  him  in  arriving  at  conclusions  which  are 
trustworthy. 

National  Committee  on  Research  in  Secondary  Education.  "An  Out- 
line of  Methods  of  Research  with  Suggestions  for  High  School 
Principals  and  Teachers,"  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Education  Bidletin, 
No.  24,  1926.  Washington:  Government  Printing  Office,  1927, 
p.  7-8. 

The  procedure  to  be  used  in  arriving  at  a  conclusion  is  illustrated  by 
the  following  quotations :  "After  this  careful  analysis  comes  the  formation 
of  an  hypothesis  or  tentative  conclusion.     This  involves  freeing  the  mind 


■"Brooks,   Fowler  D.     "Criteria  of   Educational   Research,"   School  and  Society,    18:724- 
729,  December,   1923. 


56  Bulletin  No.  38 

from  prejudice,  so  that,  uninfluenced  by  tradition  or  personal  bias,  the 
tentative  conclusion  may  be  the  result  of  the  data  obtained.  No  precon- 
ceived ideas  or  prejudices  are  allowed  to  have  any  influence.  The  habit 
of  suspending  judgment  until  all  the  evidence  is  in  must  be  formed. 
Jumping  at  conclusions  from  inadequate  grounds  is  not  to  be  tolerated. — ■ 
Nor  is  the  research  W'orker  content  with  the  mere  statement  of  the  tenta- 
tive conclusion.  Wherever  possible,  he  attempts  to  find  whether  his  hjpoth- 
esis  is  correct  by  the  process  of  validation,  of  trj'ing  it  out  in  as  many 
situations  as  possible  to  see  if  it  works." 

Odell,  Charles  W.     "The  Interpretation  of  the  Probable  Error  and 

the  Coefficient  of  Correlation,"  University  of  Illinois  Bulletin,  Vol. 

23,   No.   52,   Bureau  of  Educational  Research   Bulletin  No.   32. 

Urbana:  University  of  Illinois,  1925.    49  p. 

In  order  to  arrive  at  valid  conclusions,  a  clear  understanding  of  the 
manner  in  which  probable  errors  and  coefficients  of  correlation  are  to  be 
interpreted  is  necessary.  The  investigator  will  find  this  bulletin  of  great 
help  in  that  regard. 

Whipple,  Guy  M.     "The  Improvement  of  Educational  Research," 

School  and  Society,  26:  249-259,  August,  1927. 

After  a  long  discussion  of  the  futility  and  errors  of  much  educational 
research,  the  author  makes  a  plea  for  conclusions  which  are  not  wholly 
apologies.  He  feels  that  there  is  a  limit  to  the  number  "inconclusive  and 
merely  suggestive"  reseaiches  that  should  be  published. 


CHAPTER  VI 
REPORTING  EDUCATIONAL  RESEARCH^ 

Reporting  an  important  phase  of  educational  research.  The  re- 
port of  an  investigation  not  only  serves  to  record  and  communicate 
the  procedure  and  the  results  but  it  also  fulfills  an  important  function 
in  the  process  of  research.  In  the  act  of  writing,  if  it  is  well  done,  the 
research  worker  refines  his  thinking  and  the  detailed  record  facilitates 
the  critical  testing  of  the  work  done.  Thus  an  investigator  should  not 
consider  that  he  has  completed  his  task  until  a  complete  report  has 
been  prepared.  If  he  is  interested  in  communicating  his  work  to  others, 
the  report  must  be  well  written  in  order  to  fulfill  that  purpose  eft"ec- 
tively. 

The  communicatory  function  of  a  report  of  educational  research. 
Usually,  in  preparing  a  report  of  a  study,  a  research  worker  should 
not  confine  his  purposes  to  "telling"  the  reader  the  answer  that  he  has 
obtained  to  the  problem  studied.^  Instead,  he  should  try  to  guide  the 
reader  to  think  about  the  problem  in  such  a  way  that  at  the  conclusion 
of  his  reading  a  dependable  answer  will  have  been  attained.  Thus  a 
complete  report  of  an  investigation  should  guide  the  reader  (1)  to 
define  the  problem  clearly  so  that  he  will  understand  just  what  ques- 
tions are  to  be  answered  and  in  some  cases  their  relation  to  other  ques- 
tions, (2)  to  understand  the  data  introduced,  especially  to  be  aware  of 
their  limitations,  and  (3)  to  test  critically  the  hypothesis  which  is  to 
be  accepted  as  the  answer  and  as  a  result  to  qualify  or  limit  it  if  the 
data  indicate  that  this  should  be  done.  In  case  other  hypotheses  are 
likely  to  occur  to  the  reader,  the  discussion  should  guide  him  to  an 
understanding  of  the  reasons  for  their  rejection. 

I.  CRITERIA  FOR  JUDGING  OR  PLANNING  A  REPORT  OF 
EDUCATIONAL  RESEARCH 

The  criteria  or  rules  that  should  be  recognized  in  planning  a  report 
of  educational  research  or  in  evaluating  a  report  are  stated  in  question 
form  in  the  following  summary.  Preliminary  to  an  attempt  to  apply 
these  criteria  a  writer  should  seek  a  clear  understanding  of  them  by 


^This  chapter  is  reproduced  with  minor  changes  from:  Monroe,  Walter  S.  and  John- 
ston, Nell  B.  "Reporting  Educational  Research,"  University  of  Illinois  Bulletin,  Vol.  22, 
No.^  38,  Bureau  of  Educational  Research  Bulletin  No.  25.  "Urbana:  University  of  Illinois, 
1925.    63   p.    This  bulletin  is  now  out  of  print. 

-There  may  be  occasions  when  an  abbreviated  report  should  be  made.  For  example, 
in  an  oral  presentation  it  is  undesirable  to  give  a  large  number  of  details  and  one  may 
appropriately  ask  his  audience  to  assume  that  the  technical  procedure  was  satisfactory  or  at 
least  to  take  his  word  for  it.  On  such  occasions,  it  is  also  undesirable  to  present  the  details 
of  one's  data. 

[57] 


58  Bulletin  No.  38 

reading  the  explanation  which  follows.  The  topics  listed  under  "de- 
velopment, evaluation,  and  organization  of  ideas"  are  somewhat  in- 
tangible and  are  probably  the  most  difficult  to  apply  effectively,  but 
they  are  important  and  therefore  should  be  given  especial  attention. 

Summary  of  Criteria 

A.  General  Structure  of  a  report. 

1.  Alajor  divisions. 

a.  Are  the  following  divisions  reasonably  explicit :  defi- 
nition of  problem,  collection  of  data,  treatment  of  data,  dis- 
cussion of  each  question  to  be  answered,  and  the  conclusion? 

2.  Introduction. 

a.  Is  the  problem  introduced  in  such  a  way  that  a  com- 
petent reader  will  understand  and  appreciate  the  purpose  of 
the  report? 

b.  Has  superfluous  material  been  eliminated  from  the 
introduction  ? 

3.  Definition  of  problem. 

a.  Is  the  reader  given  a  precise  statement  of  the  questions 
to  be  answered? 

b.  In  case  the  problem  is  related  to  other  problems,  are 
the  relations  made  clear  to  the  reader? 

4.  Conclusion. 

a.  Is  the  reader  given  in  convenient  form  an  explicit 
answer  to  each  question  included  in  the  "definition  of  the 
problem"  ? 

B.  Development,  evaluation,  and  organization  of  ideas. 

5.  Trend  of  thought. 

a.  As  the  reader  "traces"  the  writer's  thinking,  will  he  be 
led  from  a  clearly  defined  problem  to  a  critical  and  scholarly 
answer  by  a  route  that  is  satisfying  to  him? 

b.  Is   an   encyclopedic   enumeration   of   ideas   or    facts 
avoided? 


Techniques  of  Educational  Research  59 

6.  Development  of  ideas. 

a.  Has  the  writer  avoided  leaving  "gaps"  in  his  "trend  of 
thought"  for  the  reader  to  fill  in? 

b.  Have  the  important  ideas  been  "developed"  so  that  the 
average  reader  will  fully  comprehend  them? 

c.  Has  the  writer  developed  his  ideas  so  completely  that 
no  points  have  been  overlooked  which  might  leave  the  reader 
with  unanswered  questions? 

7.  Evaluation  of  ideas. 

a.  Have  all  irrelevant  ideas  been  eliminated? 

b.  Have  the  ideas  been  grouped  properly  with  reference  to 
their  relative  importance? 

8.  Accuracy  of  interpretation. 

a.  Have  the  data  been  accurately  interpreted  ? 

b.  Do  the  statements  agree  with  generally  accepted  opinion 
and  "common  sense"?  If  not,  is  attention  called  to  such  dis- 
agreements ? 

9.  Precision  of  statement. 

a.  Are  the  statements  made  so  that  they  will  convey  to  the 
reader  exactly  the  meaning  intended  ? 

b.  Are  all  statements  worded  so  that  ambiguity  or  indefi- 
niteness  is  avoided? 

Details  of  structure  and  form. 

10.  Diction. 

a.  Have  appropriate  words  and  phrases  been  used  at  all 
times? 

b.  Have  particular  words  and  phrases  been  used  with  a 
consistent  meaning? 

c.  Have  words  and  phrases  to  which  common  practice  has 
assigned  technical  meanings  been  used  correctly  ? 

d.  Has  attention  been  called  explicitly  to  each  word  or 
phrase  used  with  an  unusual  or  restricted  meaning  ? 

e.  Has  the  "over-working"  of  certain  words  been  avoided? 


60  Bulletin  No.  38 

11.  Clearness. 

a.  Is  the  vocabulary  suitable  for  the  intended  audience? 

b.  Are  the  ideas  expressed  in  simple  yet  definite  language? 

12.  Rhetoric,  grammar,  spelling,  and  punctuation. 

a.  Have  the  rhetorical  rules  relative  to  unity,  coherence, 
and  emphasis  in  sentence  and  paragraph  construction  been 
properly  observed? 

b.  Have  rules  of  grammar  been  observed? 

c.  Are  all  words  correctly  spelled? 

d.  Has  consistency  in  the  plan  of  punctuation  been  ob- 
served ? 

13.  Form  of  tables  and  graphs. 

a.  Are  the  captions  of  tables  at  the  top  and  those  of  graphs 
at  the  bottom? 

b.  Are  the  captions,  box  headings,  and  other  labels  suffi- 
ciently complete  so  that  a  competent  reader  will  be  able  to  un- 
derstand the  table  or  graph  without  referring  to  the  accom- 
panying text? 

14.  Explanation  and  interpretation  of  tables  and  graphs. 

a.  Has  the  enumeration  of  the  facts  summarized  in  a  table 
or  diagram  been  minimized  in  the  accompanying  text  ? 

b.  Is  the  accompanying  text  sufficiently  complete  so  that 
it  is  unnecessary  for  the  reader  to  refer  to  the  table  or  diagram 
in  order  to  follow  the  trend  of  thought? 

c.  Are  references  to  tables  and  graphs  sufficiently  explicit 
so  that  the  reader  will  have  no  difficulty  in  locating  the  correct 
table  or  graph? 

d.  In  interpreting  a  table  or  graph,  is  the  introduction  of 
irrelevant  facts  or  comments  avoided,  so  that  the  trend  of 
thought  is  not  broken? 

15.  References  to  sources  of  information. 

a.  Are  bibliographical  references  given  for  statements  or 
facts  taken  from  the  works  of  other  persons? 

16.  Bibliographical  form. 

a.  Are  all  references  both  in  footnotes  and  in  bibliog- 
raphies given  in  an  approved  bibliographical  form? 


Techniques  of  Educational  Research  61 

17.  Chapter  titles,  table  of  contents,  preface,  title  page,  order  of 
paging,  spacing,  kind  of  paper,  and  so  forth. 

a.  Have  conventional  rules  with  reference  to  chapter  titles, 
table  of  contents,  and  so  forth  been  observed? 

18.  Footnotes. 

a.  Have  footnotes  been  used  to  give  needed  explanations 
or  other  comments  which  will  make  more  certain  a  correct  and 
complete  understanding  by  the  reader? 

b.  Has  material  which  would  tend  to  break  the  trend  of 
thought  but  which  is  desirable  to  include  been  placed  in  a  foot- 
note or  in  an  appendix  ? 

19.  Miscellaneous. 

a.  Have  conventional  rules  with  reference  to  abbreviations, 
division  of  words,  spelling  out  numbers,  and  so  forth  been 
complied  with? 


II.    DISCUSSION   OF   CRITERIA 

1.  Major  divisions  and  their  sequence.  No  general  rule  can  be 
stated  with  reference  to  dividing  a  report  into  chapters  or  other  sec- 
tions. Usually  there  is  an  introductory  section  or  chapter  in  which  the 
problem  and  its  discussion  are  introduced  to  the  reader.  Either  as  a 
part  of  the  "introduction"  or  as  divisons  coordinate  with  it,  there 
should  be  a  "definition  of  a  problem"  and  a  statement  of  the  "sources 
of  data"  and  "plan  of  treatment."  Sometimes  a  general  statement  is 
made  in  regard  to  the  "limitations  of  the  data." 

The  plan  of  the  "discussion  of  the  problem"  will  be  determined 
largely  by  the  way  in  which  the  problem  is  defined.  Usually  there 
should  be  a  distinct  division  for  each  major  subordinate  problem  or 
question.  For  each  problem  or  question  there  should  be  an  explicit 
conclusion.  Sometimes  these  may  be  placed  at  the  end  of  the  respective 
chapters  or  sections,  but  in  lengthy  reports  it  is  desirable  to  set  apart  a 
final  chapter  for  this  purpose. 

In  short  manuscripts  (twenty-five  pages  or  less)  it  is  not  cus- 
tomary to  label  the  sections  except  by  a  paragraph  or  center  heading, 
but  a  critical  reader  should  always  be  able  to  identify  them  without 
difficulty.  When  a  manuscript  includes  as  many  as  fifty  typewritten 
pages  double-spaced,  it  is  customary  to  form  chapters  or  sections  and 
to  label  each  with  an  appropriate  title. 


62  Bulletin  No.  38 

2.  Introduction.  The  purpose  of  the  "introduction"  is  to  acquaint 
the  reader  with  the  problem  under  consideration  so  that  he  will  both 
understand  and  appreciate  the  purpose  of  the  following  discussion.  In 
introducing  a  problem,  the  writer  may  tell  how  it  arose  and  discuss 
briefly  its  importance,  but  if  it  is  already  familiar  and  of  immediate 
interest  to  the  audience  addressed  this  phase  of  the  introduction  should 
be  omitted  or  at  least  made  very  brief.  In  general,  the  introduction 
should  contain  such  explanatory  statements  as  are  judged  necessary  to 
put  the  reader  in  the  proper  frame  of  mind  for  the  understanding  of 
the  material  that  follows.  It  is,  however,  not  possible  to  specify  the 
portion  of  a  report  which  may  properly  be  devoted  to  an  "introduc- 
tion." In  case  the  section  so  labeled  includes,  in  addition  to  a  state- 
ment of  the  writer's  purpose,  a  description  of  the  sources  of  data  and 
of  the  plan  of  treatment  and  some  comment  upon  the  limitations  of 
the  data,  it  may  extend  over  several  pages.  On  the  other  hand  it  may 
be  relatively  short.  A  good  rule  to  bear  in  mind  is  that  as  soon  as 
the  reader  understands  the  problem,  he  probably  will  be  interested  in 
what  the  writer  has  to  say  about  it  and  will  be  inclined  to  resent  an 
unnecessary  delay. 

3.  Definition  of  problem.  An  effective  way  to  define  a  problem 
is  to  state  in  precise  terms  the  specific  questions  to  be  answered.  If  it 
is  thought  desirable,  explanation  and  comment  may  be  added.  If  there 
are  closely  related  questions  that  are  not  to  be  considered,  it  is  some- 
times helpful  to  point  these  out. 

4.  Conclusion  and  summary.  A  reader  should  always  be  able  to 
find  at  the  end  of  the  manuscript  or  at  the  end  of  the  major  divisions 
a  brief  statement  of  the  answers  to  the  questions  stated  in  the  defi- 
nition of  the  problem.  If  answers  are  to  be  given  for  a  large  number 
of  questions,  they  should  be  organized  by  grouping  and  subordination 
so  that  the  reader  will  not  be  bewildered  by  an  encyclopedic  enumera- 
tion of  statements.  Furthermore,  the  conclusion  should  be  confined  to 
a  statement  of  the  answers  to  the  questions  being  considered.^ 

5.  Trend  of  thought.  The  phrase  "trend  of  thought"  is  used  as  a 
name  for  a  somewhat  subtle  and  indefinite  concept.  It  is,  however, 
implied  in  a  writer's  purpose  with  reference  to  his  readers.  The  sen- 
tences and  paragraphs  which  the  writer  sets  down  are  for  the  purpose 
of  rendering  maximum  guidance  and  assistance  to  a  reader  in  thinking 
from  the  problem  defined  to  its  solution.  The  writer  has  thought 
through  the  problem  and  he  is  writing  for  the  purpose  of  guiding  the 
reader  also  in  thinking  out  the  same  answer.  This  does  not  mean  that 
the  writer  should  describe  his  actual  mental  processes  in  thinking  out 

'See  page  7. 


Techniques  of  Educational  Research  63 

his  solution.  Frequently  his  thinking  involves  much  "scrapped 
thought,"  and  he  should  endeavor  to  guide  the  reader  so  that  such 
waste  will  be  eliminated.  Therefore,  the  writer  should  rearrange  his 
thinking  about  the  question  so  that  the  reader's  thinking  will  be  as 
efficient  as  possible. 

The  organization  of  one's  writing  should  be  such  that  the  reader 
will  progress  through  the  several  phases  or  steps  of  reflective  thinking: 
defining  the  problem,  gathering  data  or  information,  forming  hypoth- 
eses, and  verifying  them.  The  writer  should  keep  the  problem  or  a 
subdivision  of  it  before  the  reader.  Ideas  should  be  presented  to  him 
at  the  time  he  needs  them.  When  he  has  been  guided  to  the  solution 
which  the  writer  wishes  him  to  reach,  he  should  be  led  to  examine  it 
critically. 

Many  qualities  enter  into  a  trend  of  thought.  There  must  first  be 
a  good  general  organization ;  then  the  rules  of  unity  and  coherence 
must  be  observed  in  each  paragraph  and  sentence.  All  irrelevant 
material  must  be  excluded.  Good  writing  is  not  a  series  of  isolated  or 
unconnected  statements  even  though  each  one  itself  may  express  an 
important  idea  or  principle. 

6.  Development  of  ideas.  Many  writers  tend  to  abbreviate.  Im- 
portant ideas  are  mentioned  incidentally  or  merely  alluded  to,  and  in 
some  cases,  omitted  altogether.  It  thus  becomes  necessary  for  the 
critical  reader  to  fill  in  the  "gaps"  in  the  thinking  if  he  is  to  avoid  a 
feeling  of  incompleteness.  In  such  a  case  the  writer  has  failed  to  fulfill 
his  function  in  guiding  his  reader  to  thinking  fully  and  clearly  about 
the  problem  under  consideration. 

Words  and  phrases  are  used  as  symbols  for  ideas.  Such  phrases 
as  "supervised  study,"  "divided  period,"  "individual  instruction," 
"motivation,"  "curriculum,"  and  "intelligence"  occur  frequently  in 
educational  writings  and  are  intended  to  stimulate  in  the  mind  of  the 
reader  certain  ideas.  One  person's  concept  of  "supervised  study,"  for 
example,  is  likely  to  differ  from  another's  in  wealth  of  associations  and 
in  richness  of  meaning,  even  when  there  is  no  actual  disagreement. 
Because  a  writer  has  spent  some  time  in  formulating,  enriching  and 
organizing  his  concepts,  he  is  very  likely  to  attach  to  the  symbols  used 
a  richness  of  association  and  meaning  much  greater  than  that  stimu- 
lated in  the  mind  of  his  reader,  unless  he  "develops"  his  concepts  by 
explicit  references  to  associated  ideas  and  by  appropriate  illustrations. 

7.  Evaluation  of  ideas.  In  thinking  about  a  problem*  many  ideas 
may  come  into  the  mind  of  the  writer.  Some  are  pertinent  to  the  prob- 
lem; others  are  not.     If  extraneous  ideas  are  introduced  into  the  dis- 


"■This  includes  any  reading  on  the  problem  which  the  writer  may  do. 


64  Bulletin  No.  38 

cussion,  the  reader's  attention  is  likely  to  be  distracted  from  the  main 
issue.  It  is  not  sufficient  to  reject  only  those  ideas  which  are  erroneous 
or  unimportant  in  general.  An  idea  may  be  very  useful  in  connection 
with  one  problem  but  have  little  or  no  value  in  the  treatment  of 
another.  Good  writing  is  not  merely  recording  good  ideas.  It  is  rather 
the  recording  of  ideas  which  are  good  for  a  particular  purpose.  One 
of  the  difficult  tasks  of  a  writer  is  to  stick  to  his  text.  His  prejudices 
in  favor  of  certain  ideas  constantly  tempt  him  to  introduce  topics 
which  have  little  or  no  connection  with  the  problem. 

The  proper  subordination  of  ideas  is  also  important.  As  has  been 
pointed  out,  the  writer  should  seek  to  build  up  a  "trend  of  thought." 
The  effectiveness  of  the  ideas  included  in  this  "trend  of  thought" 
depends  upon  the  organization  in  somewhat  the  same  way  that  the 
convenience  of  a  house  depends  upon  the  arrangement  of  the  several 
rooms.  There  should  be  a  few  principal  ideas  and  all  others  should 
be  subordinated  to  these.  The  reader  will  then  be  given  a  few  major 
points  which  will  serve  as  organizing  centers  for  the  related  ideas. 

8.  Accuracy  of  interpretation.  The  writer  is  responsible  for 
knowing  his  data.  If  they  are  not  representative  or  if  the}^  are  subject 
to  errors  or  other  limitations  he  must  qualify  his  statements  accord- 
ingly. He  should  make  certain  that  his  data  justify  a  statement  before 
he  makes  it.  He  should  also  check  it  against  generally  accepted  beliefs 
and  "common  sense."  Even  when  he  is  satisfied  in  regard  to  its 
accuracy,  he,  in  many  cases,  should  call  the  reader's  attention  to  any 
disagreement  with  beliefs  or  statements  by  other  writers  and  shoukl 
indicate  the  basis  of  his  judgment.  In  the  absence  of  such  explanation 
the  critical  reader  may  judge  the  statement  to  be  inaccurate  and  con- 
clude that  the  writer  has  been  careless  in  his  thinking. 

9.  Precision  of  statement.  A  precise  statement  conveys  exactly 
the  meaning  intended  by  the  writer.  When  read  carefully  by  a  com- 
petent person  there  is  no  uncertainty  in  his  mind.  He  is  not  left  in 
doubt  on  any  point.  He  is  not  confused.  He  has  no  questions  to  ask 
about  what  the  writer  intended  to  say.  It  is  obvious  to  him  that  the 
writer  has  very  clear,  definite  and  precise  ideas  to  express.  A  precise 
statement  usually  includes  limitations  and  restrictions  which  should  be 
kept  in  mind.  The  words  used  have  been  selected  with  a  view  to  the 
precise  shades  of  meaning  which  they  convey. 

Lack  of  precision  may  be  due  to  (I)  poor  choice  of  words,  (2) 
faulty  usage  of  technical  terms,  and  (3)  omission  of  restrictive  words 
and  phrases. 

The  following  brief  quotations  from  "educational  writings"  have 
been  carefully  selected  to  illustrate  the  lack  of  precision  of  statement. 


Techniques  of  Educational  Research  65 

However,  the  reader  should  reahze  that  these  excerpts  may  lose  much 
of  their  effectiveness  as  illustrations  by  being  abstracted  from  the 
setting  given  them  by  their  authors.  The  first  quotation  illustrates  the 
effect  of  the  choice  of  words  upon  the  precision  of  statement : 

In  selecting  drill  material  in  reading,  methods  can  be  determined  by  a  wise 
manipulation  of  reading  tests.^ 

The  words,  "method,"  "wise,"  and  "manipulation"  are  poor  words 
to  use  in  this  sentence.  The  following  sentence  expresses  more  clearly 
and  precisely  what  the  author  appears  to  have  had  in  mind : 

The  use  of  reading  tests  designed  to  reveal  the  specific  deficiencies  of 
children  is  helpful  in  selecting  drill  material  in  reading. 

A  second  illustration  is  : 

To  overcome  in  a  single  grade  the  heterogeneous  grouping  of  children 
from  the  standpoint  of  mentality,  various  administrative  devices  have  been  em- 
ployed writh  varied  degrees  of  success.  Two  of  these  devices,  teacher's  estimates 
of  pupil's  work,  and  mentality  tests  stand  out  prominently.' 

In  this  statement  one  is  confused  because  "teacher's  estimates  of 
pupil's  work,"  and  "mentality  tests"  are  called  administrative  devices 
which  overcome  the  heterogeneous  grouping  of  children.  They  are 
not  devices  of  this  sort.  They  are  rather  instruments  for  securing 
information,  which  in  turn  may  be  used  as  a  basis  for  grouping  the 
children  belonging  to  a  single  grade. 

A  considerable  technical  vocabulary  has  gradually  been  built  up  in 
the  field  of  education.  Many  words  which  were  already  in  use  have 
been  assigned  very  definite  meanings.  Failure  to  use  such  words  in 
accordance  with  the  technical  meanings  assigned  to  them  greatly 
reduces  the  effectiveness  of  one's  writing.  The  word  "standard"  is 
very  frequently  used  incorrectly.    For  example : 

In  measuring  certain  educational  products  there  too  must  be  a  standard 
corresponding  to  the  many  commercial  standards.  It  is  not  for  us  here  to 
question  how  educational  standards  are  obtained.' 

It  appears  from  what  follows  that  in  the  second  sentence  this 
writer  is  using  "standard"  in  the  sense  of  "norm."  In  the  first  sentence 
it  obviously  has  the  meaning  of  "standard  unit"  such  as  a  standard 
yard,  or  a  standard  pound.  Hence,  the  meaning  of  the  quotation  is 
not  clear,  and  the  reader  is  likely  to  be  confused  or  misled.  It  is  prob- 
able that  the  writer  failed  to  think  clearly. 

The  quotation  below  illustrates  the  securing  of  precision  through 
the  use  of  restrictive  terms : 

In  this  chapter  we  shall  not  rehearse  the  facts  concerning  the  boys  and 
girls  of  fourteen  or  fifteen  which  are  available  in  books  on  the  psychology  of 


"Paulu,   E.   M.     Diagnostic   Testing  and  Remedial   Teaching.      New   York:   D.   C.    Heath 
and  Company,   1924,  p.  22. 
^Ibid.,   p.   58. 
Ubid.,  p.  28-29. 


66  Bulletin  No.  38 

childhood  and  adolescence,  but  shall  report  three  studies  which  add  new  infor- 
mation concerning  the  select  group  of  boys  and  girls  who  enter  American  high 
schools.* 

The  words  printed  in  italics  add  greatly  to  the  precision  of  this 
statement.  Their  value  becomes  apparent  when  the  statement  is  re- 
written as  follows : 

In  this  chapter  we  shall  not  rehearse  the  facts  concerning  boys  and  girls 
which  are  available  in  books  on  psychology,  but  shall  report  three  studies  which 
add  new  information. 

The  following  is  an  illustration  of  a  paragraph  which  adds  to  the 
precision  of  the  chapter  in  which  it  appears: 

Care  must  be  taken,  however,  not  to  leave  the  impression  that  the  increased 
expenditure  per  child  of  school  age  means  merely  an  increased  cost  of  an 
identical  service.  During  this  period  the  public  school  system  of  the  state  has 
not  only  attracted  and  held  in  school  a  larger  part  of  the  children  of  school  age, 
but  it  has  expanded  its  "program"  by  establishing  a  more  varied  and  elaborate 
curriculum,  and  additional  service  such  as  transportation  of  children,  health 
service,  kindergartens,  vocational  and  continuation  schools.' 

This  paragraph  serves  to  direct  the  attention  of  the  reader  to  the 
avoidance  of  a  conclusion  which  otherwise  might  be  inferred  from  the 
figures  just  cited.  It  is  also  an  illustration  of  precise  writing.  The 
words  have  been  chosen  carefully  in  order  to  convey  exactly  the  mean- 
ing intended.  Evidently  the  writer  thought  that  the  word  "program" 
might  not  convey  a  sufficiently  definite  meaning  and  for  this  reason  he 
has  defined  it. 

It  is  obvious  that  precision  in  thinking  is  a  prerequisite  for  pre- 
cision in  expression.  It  would  be  only  accidental  if  one  wrote  precise 
sentences  and  paragraphs  when  he  did  not  have  precise  ideas  to  ex- 
press. On  the  other  hand  it  is  not  generally  realized  that  faulty  usage 
of  technical  terms,  omission  of  restrictive  expressions,  and  even  a  poor 
choice  of  words  and  phrases  constitute  evidence  that  the  writer  has 
failed  to  think  clearly  and  precisely.  There  may  be  exceptions  but  in 
general  this  may  be  accepted  as  an  empirical  rule. 

10.  Diction.  Although  "general  structure,"  "trend  of  thought," 
"development  of  ideas,"  and  so  forth  are  potent  in  determining  the 
quality  of  a  report,  a  writer  cannot  communicate  his  ideas  effectively 
unless  he  uses  appropriate  words  and  phrases.  Some  words  that  are 
used  with  only  a  general  meaning  in  conversation  and  in  non-technical 
fields  have  been  assigned  precise  meanings  in  the  field  of  education. 
Examples   of   such   words   are:    standards    (in   educational   measure- 


'Thorndike,  E.  L.  The  Psychology  of  Algebra.  New  York:  The  Macmillan  Company, 
1923,  p.   1.     The  italics  have  been  inserted  by  the  authors  of  this  bulletin. 

'Strayer,  George  D.  and  Haig,  Robert  M.  Financing  of  Education  in  the  State  of 
New  York.     New  York:  The  Macmillan  Company,   1922,  p.    138. 


Techniques  of  Educational  Research  67 

ments),  intelligence,  objectives,  content,  correlation,  project,  diagnosis, 
supervision  and  motivation.  Other  words  and  phrases  have  been 
coined  to  represent  ideas :  junior  high  school,  project  method,  achieve- 
ment test,  power  test,  supervised  study,  divided  period,  Dalton  plan, 
and  so  forth.  A  writer's  skill  in  choosing  verbs,  adjectives  and  adverbs 
also  is  very  potent  in  determining  this  quality  of  his  writing.  Fine 
shades  of  meaning  cannot  be  expressed  unless  appropriate  words  are 
used. 

As  a  rule  a  writer  should  use  a  word  or  a  phrase  only  as  a  symbol 
for  the  meaning  usually  given  to  it.  If  he  finds  it  necessary  or  desir- 
able to  modify  this  meaning,  he  should  call  the  reader's  attention  to  the 
restricted  or  changed  meaning.  Usually  such  explanatory  comments 
should  be  given  in  a  footnote  and  the  reader  may  be  reminded  of  the 
modified  meaning  by  enclosing  the  word  or  phrase  in  quotation  marks 
whenever  it  appears. 

It  is  highly  important  that  a  writer  be  consistent  in  his  use  of 
terms.  Any  inconsistency  will  be  annoying  to  the  reader  and  may 
make  it  impossible  for  him  to  understand  what  has  been  written. 
Furthermore,  lack  of  consistency  in  the  use  of  terms  and  phrases  is 
usually  evidence  of  careless  or  superficial  thinking  about  the  problem 
being  discussed. 

Frequent  recurrence  of  a  word  or  phrase  should  be  avoided.  No 
term  should  be  over-worked.  No  definite  rule  can  be  stated,  but  in 
general  a  writer  should  endeavor  to  avoid  the  repetition  of  the  same 
word  or  phrase  in  a  short  sentence  or  in  successive  short  sentences. ^° 
This  rule  is  especially  important  in  the  case  of  an  emphatic  noun  or 
verb. 

11.  Clearness.  The  function  of  a  report  is  to  stimulate  in  the 
mind  of  a  reader  certain  definite  ideas.  If  these  ideas  are  not  im- 
pressed upon  him,  if  he  misinterprets  what  is  said  or  is  left  in  doubt, 
the  writer  has  failed  either  in  his  own  thinking  or  in  his  medium  of 
expression.  This  vital  principle  of  clearness  is  the  starting  point  for 
any  sound  treatment  of  a  subject.  Every  good  style  is  essentially  a 
clear  style.  Good  writers  vary  in  their  forms  of  expression.  They 
may  have,  and  usually  do  have,  certain  peculiarities,  but  they  have  in 
common  the  one  aim  of  presenting  their  material  in  such  a  way  that  a 
reader  is  not  troubled  by  the  slightest  obscurity  or  irrelevance. 

Often  it  is  necessary,  in  addition  to  making  the  exposition  clear, 
to  make  it  interesting.  Initial  interest  is  secured  by  the  way  in  which 
the  problem  is  introduced.    Holding  the  reader's  attention  is  dependent 


'"This  general  rule  does  not  apply  to  the  more  common  prepositions,  conjunctions,   etc. 


68  Bulletin  No.  38 

upon  the  manner  in  which  the  discussion  of  the  problem  is  handled. 
Irrelevant  statements  tend  to  hinder  the  reader  in  getting  the  mean- 
ing. The  presence  of  too  many  ideas  is  likely  to  be  distracting  and 
confusing.  \"erbosity  on  the  part  of  the  writer  makes  the  reading 
laborious.  On  the  other  hand,  if  the  statements  are  too  bare,  if  the 
writer  assumes  too  great  knowledge  on  the  part  of  the  reader,  the  ideas 
will  not  be  fully  grasped  nor  appreciated.  Unfamiliar  material  or 
abstract  statements  should  be  clarified  by  the  use  of  illustrations  or 
examples.  Statistical  data  often  are  confusing  unless  skillfully  pre- 
sented in  tables  or  diagrams.  Xo  rule,  of  course,  can  be  laid  down. 
Each  writer  must  decide  whether,  considered  from  the  standpoint  of 
the  average  reader,  the  particular  statement  which  he  makes  needs 
elucidation  or  will  be  made  more  effective  by  illustration.^^ 

Anything  which  is  of  use  in  increasing  the  interest  of  the  reader 
is  justified,  but  anything  which  is  mere  ornamentation  is  to  be  con- 
demned. 

12.  Rhetoric,  grammar,  spelling,  and  punctuation.  The  authors 
of  this  bulletin  have  not  attempted  a  systematic  or  a  complete  treat- 
ment of  rhetoric,  grammar,  spelling,  and  punctuation.  The  follow^ing 
discussion  is  limited  to  a  few  rules  which,  judging  from  our  experi- 
ence, are  frequently  violated  in  the  kinds  of  educational  writing  referred 
to  in  this  bulletin.  For  complete  and  authoritative  treatments  of 
rhetoric  and  grammar  the  reader  is  referred  to  the  following  manuals : 

Greever,    Garland,   and   Jones,    Easley    S.      The    Century   Handbook    of 

Writing.    New  York :  The  Century  Company,  1919.    228  p. 
Leonard,  Arthur  W.,  and  Fuess,  Cl.a.ude  M.    Good  Writing.    New  York: 

Harcourt,  Brace  and  Company,  1922.     314  p. 
Manly,  John  M.,  and  Powell,  John  A.    A  Manual  for  Writers.    Chicago: 

University  of  Chicago  Press,  1913.    225  p. 
AIanly,  John  M.,  and  Richert,  Edith.     The  Writer's  Inde.v.     New  York: 

Henry  Holt  and  Companj^  1923.     261  p. 
Woods,  George  B.,  and  Str-\tton,  Clarence.  A  Manual  of  English.  Garden 

City,  New  York :    Doubleday,  Page  and  Company,  1926.     265  p. 

Paragraph  construction.  A  paragraph  should  be  restricted  to  the 
presentation  of  a  single  central  idea  and  very  closely  related  subordi- 
nate ideas.  It  should  represent  a  unit  of  a  writer's  discussion,  and 
should  embody  unity,  coherence,  clearness,  and  emphasis.  Its  central 
idea  in  all  cases  should  be  apparent  to  the  reader,  and  sometimes  should 
be  expressed  in  the  first  sentence.  A  paragraph  should  never  close 
with  a  weak  ending. 


"Many  successful  writers  have  testified  that  they  secure  a  great  deal  of  help  from 
reading  aloud  from  some  good  writer.  In  this  way  they  are  able  to  get  the  "feel"  of  the 
style  of  the  author.  One  successful  young  writer  made  it  a  practice  before  beginning  the 
writing  of  an  article  to  read  aloud  from  the  works  of  William  James.  He  did  this  not  for 
the  purpose  of  understanding  James  but  rather  for  stimulating  in  his  own  thinking  a  flow  of 
words  which  would  have  the  quality  of  force  and  beauty  as  well  as  of  clearness. 


Techniques  of  Educational  Research  69 

No  rule  can  be  stated  in  regard  to  the  length  of  a  paragraph,  but 
in  general  long  paragraphs  should  be  avoided.  It  is  seldom  that  para- 
graphs exceeding  200  to  250  words  in  length  are  really  good.  The 
poor  structure  is  not  due  to  the  length  of  the  paragraph  but  rather  to 
the  fact  that  many  writers,  particularly  amateurs,  begin  a  new  unit  of 
thought  by  the  time  they  have  written  in  excess  of  200  words. 

Sentence  construction.  The  essentials  of  a  sentence  are  good  con- 
nection, good  organization,  and  correct  grammar.  The  untrained 
writer  frequently  finds  it  difficult  to  attain  good  sentence  structure. 
Faults  of  grammar  usually  can  be  corrected  with  comparatively  little 
effort,  but  practice  is  necessary  in  order  to  secure  good  organization. 
Frequently  it  is  necessary  to  divide  sentences,  to  twist  them  about,  to 
join  or  to  condense  them,  and  in  some  stubborn  cases  to  make  a  com- 
plete reconstruction. 

Punctuation.  The  main  rules  of  punctuation  regarding  the  more 
important  uses  of  the  period,  comma,  and  so  forth  are  well-fixed  and 
accepted  by  all  authorities  and  should  be  carefully  observed  in  sentence 
structure.  However,  a  variety  of  usage  exists  concerning  minor  points. 
Certain  persons  and  publishers  tend  to  punctuate  freely,  others  spar- 
ingly. Each  writer  should  decide  regarding  the  method  of  punctuation 
he  wishes  to  adopt  and  should  be  consistent  throughout  his  manuscript 
in  the  use  of  that  method.  He  should  keep  in  mind  that  punctuation 
depends  upon  meaning ;  some  marks  are  essential  to  clearness ;  others, 
though  not  essential,  are  helpful ;  and  all  which  do  not  aid  in  making 
the  meaning  clear  should  be  avoided. 

13.  Form  of  tables  and.  graphs,  (a)  Tables.  Statistical  data 
usually  should  be  presented  in  tabular  form  with  a  specific  heading. 
Occasionally  when  the  data  are  simple  and  do  not  occupy  more  than 
three  or  four  lines,  they  are  presented  informally  without  a  heading; 
but  this  practice  is  to  be  discouraged. 

The  construction  of  good  tables  is  difficult  and  few  general  rules 

can  be  given  that  will  apply  in  all  cases.  Frequently,  it  will  be  necessary 

for  the  writer  to  exercise  his  ingenuity  in  order  to  set  up  good  tables. 

\  As  a  guiding  principle  he  should  bear  in  mind  that  a  table  should  be 

i  easily  read  and  should  present  the  data  effectively.     Also  he  should 

I  consider  the  available  space  on  the  page,  and  unless  the  presentation 

of  the  data  will  be  weakened,  he  should  confine  the  table  to  a  single 

page  of  the  manuscript.     Extremely  large  tables  often  can  be  avoided 

by  breaking  them  up  into  two  or  more  separate  ones.     Each  table 

should  have  its  title  or  caption  and  both  the  general  heading  and  the 

mbordinate  headings  should  be  sufficiently  explicit  so  that  the  table 

an  be  understood  without  reference  to  the  accompanying  text. 


70 


Bulletin  Xo.  38 


The  caption  of  a  table  is  usually  written  in  all  capitals  with  no 
punctuation  mark  at  its  close.  (See  Table  I.)  If  there  is  a  sub-title, 
it  is  placed  on  the  line  below  the  main  title  and  written  in  capitals  and 
small  letters.  (See  Table  IV.)  When  a  second  sub-title  is  considered 
necessary,  it  should  appear,  usually  in  parentheses,  below  the  sub-title. 

Tables  should  be  numbered  with  Roman  figures  consecutively 
throughout  the  manuscript.  The  number  followed  by  a  period  pre- 
cedes the  caption  and  appears  on  the  same  line. 

Careful  attention  should  be  given  to  the  various  box  heads  (head- 
ings and  sub-headings)  of  the  different  divisions  of  the  table.  Hori- 
zontal double  lines  are  placed  at  the  top  of  the  table,  a  horizontal  single 
line  at  the  bottom,  and  no  vertical  lines  at  the  sides.  Within  the  table, 
vertical  lines  are  placed  between  the  columns  of  data;  horizontal  lines 
are  seldom  used  except  to  mark  ofif  important  divisions  as  in  the  box 
headings  or  to  set  ofif  totals.  Perpendicular  double  lines  should  be 
used  only  when  the  table  is  doubled  upon  itself,  that  is,  when  exactly 
the  same  kind  of  data  appears  on  both  sides  of  the  double  rules.  This 
is  done  in  order  to  break  long  narrow  columns  of  data.  (See  Table  II.) 
An  open  table,  that  is,  a  table  with  no  perpendicular  lines  should  not 
be  used  for  more  than  three  columns  of  data.  (See  Table  III.)  If  such 
a  table  is  long,  it  is  often  better  to  double  it  upon  itself  as  in  Table  II. 

The  following  specimen  tables  are  given  as  illustrations  of  the 
forms  most  commonly  used  in  tabular  construction.  The  first  column 
division  is  known  as  "the  stub"  and  consists  usually  of  reading  ma- 
terial.   The  other  columns  as  a  rule  contain  figures. 

Table  I.   Example  of  a  Simple  Table 


Test 


Form 


Grade 


Scores 


Scot 


Differ 


Table  II.   Example  of  a  Table  Doubled  Upon  Itself 


Series  C 


City 


Number  of 
cases 


Percent  of 
cases 


Series  C 


City 


Number  of 
cases 


Percent  of 
cases 


Name  of  City 

Boston 

Chicago 


Techniques  of  Educational  Research 
Table  III.   Example  of  an  Open  Table 


71 


Time  of  Testing 

.  . .  .October 

....  February. . . . 


Number  of  Tests 
Given 

3 

6 


Table  IV.    Example  of  Table  With  Subdivisions 
This  is  the  Most  Common  Form  for  Subdivisions  and  Second  Subdivisions. 


Achievement  Quotients 

IntelHgence 
Quotients 

Experimental 

Control 

Beginning 

End 

Beginning              End 

Table  V.     Example  of  Table  With  Varied  Divisions 


States 

Number 

of 
Factories 

Numbers  of  Employees 

Men 

Women 

Boys 

Girls 

Total 

(b)  Graphs.  Frequently  the  effectiveness  of  one's  writing  may 
be  increased  by  presenting  certain  types  of  facts  in  graphical  form. 
Simple  diagrams  and  figures  are  easily  understood  by  most  readers  and 
are  especially  helpful  to  those  who  have  difficulty  in  getting  the  mean- 
ing from  the  printed  page. 

When  employing  graphical  methods  of  expression,  accuracy  and 
precision  should  be  observed  just  as  when  writing  a  verbal  report. 
Since  excellent  treatises  on  graphical  methods  are  easily  accessible,  we 
shall  not  discuss  them  in  this  bulletin  but  we  recommend  that  a  writer 
become  familiar  with  the  rules  governing  graphic  representation  before 
he  attempts  to  apply  such  methods.  Violation  of  any  of  the  standard' 
rules  may  result  in  conveying  misleading  if  not  actually  erroneous  ideas 
to  the  reader. 

In  addition  to  the  rules  relating  to  the  form  of  graphs,  there  are 
others  which  define  conventional  practices  relative  to  arrangement  and 


12  Bulletin  No.  38 

to  the  labeling  of  a  figure.  The  caption  should  always  be  placed  below 
the  graphs  and  the  number  should  be  in  Arabic  numerals,  not  Roman, 
If  possible  all  the  labels  of  the  diagram  should  be  arranged  so  that 
they  can  be  read  when  the  page  is  held  in  one  position.  A  "confused 
mass"  of  lines  and  labels  should  be  avoided,  but  sufficient  identifying 
and  explanatory  marks  should  be  included  that  a  competent  person  will 
be  able  to  understand  the  graph  without  referring  to  the  accompanying 
text. 

14.  Explanation  and  interpretation  of  tables  and  graphs.  Unless 
it  is  certain  that  a  table  or  graph  will  be  understood  easily,  the  reading 
of  it  should  be  explained  in  the  text  of  the  manuscript,  but  no  extended 
enumeration  of  the  facts  that  have  been  summarized  in  the  table  or 
graph  should  be  given.  The  interpretation  should  be  confined  to  those 
facts  that  are  essential  to  the  discussion  of  the  problem.  The  reader's 
"trend  of  thought"  will  be  broken  if  his  attention  is  called  to  items  or 
inferences  not  related  to  the  particular  problem  under  consideration. 
Tables  and  graphs  should  be  considered  supplementary  to  the  text  and 
not  intimate  parts  of  it.  They  supply  details  in  a  convenient  summary 
form,  they  also  add  emphasis,  but  they  do  not  express  a  "trend  of 
thought." 

15.  References  to  sources  of  information.  When  specific  facts 
are  used  or  sentences  or  paragraphs  from  another's  writings  are  quoted, 
it  is  customary  to  give  in  a  footnote  the  source  from  which  such  ma- 
terial is  taken.  This  is  done  for  two  reasons :  custom  demands  that  a 
writer  acknowledge  his  indebtedness  in  such  cases ;  and  the  reference 
enables  the  reader  to  consult  the  original  material  if  he  so  desires. 
Furthermore,  the  information  regarding  the  source  of  a  statement 
frequently  furnishes  the  reader  with  an  index  of  its  probable  validity 
and  accuracy.  Naturally  more  confidence  is  placed  in  data  taken  from 
the  writings  of  a  person  of  reputation  or  from  a  source  carefully  edited 
than  from  unknown  authors  or  questionable  publishers. 

16.  Bibliographical  forms.  Whenever  a  reference  is  made  to  the 
work  of  another  author,  sufficient  information  should  be  given  to 
enable  one  not  only  to  locate  the  material  but  also  to  purchase  it. 
Sometimes  full  information  is  not  given  on  the  publication  and  in  such 
case  the  reference  cannot,  of  course,  be  complete. 

All  references  in  either  a  footnote  or  a  formal  bibliography  should 
be  given  in  an  approved  form.  Although  slight  variations  in  the  order 
of  the  items  of  a  reference  and  in  punctuation  are  found  in  different 
authoritative  publications,  it  is  highly  important  that  a  writer  adopt  a 
definite  form  and  follow  it  consistently.     The  forms  adopted  by  the 


Techniques  of  Educational  Research  73 

Bureau  of  Educational  Research  in  its  own  publications  are  given  on 
the  following  pages. 

It  should  be  emphasized  that  the  author's  name  should  be  copied 
exactly  as  it  appears,  no  change  of  any  kind  being  made  in  it.  If  two 
or  more  references  by  the  same  author  occur  in  the  bibliography,  his 
name  should  appear  in  the  same  form  in  each  even  though  in  the  actual 
references  initials  may  have  been  used  in  one  case  and  the  given 
names  spelled  out  in  another.  In  a  bibliography  the  references  usually 
should  be  arranged  in  alphabetical  order  according  to  the  names  of  the 
authors  regardless  of  the  nature  of  the  publications.  The  illustrations 
on  the  following  pages  give  the  form  to  be  used  for  references  occurring 
in  footnotes.  In  a  formal  bibliography  it  is  customary  to  have  the 
author's  name  appear  in  capitals  and  small  capitals  and  to  indent  all 
lines  except  the  first  as  has  been  done  in  the  bibliographies  of  this 
bulletin. 

The  forms  listed  here  as  illustrations  have  been  labeled  "book 
reference,"  "periodical  reference,"  and  so  forth,  so  that  they  may  be 
easily  referred  to,  but  the  reader  should  understand  that  it  is  not 
necessary  to  label  a  reference  as  a  book,  a  periodical,  or  a  report,  for 
when  a  correct  bibliographical  form  is  used,  this  fact  becomes  evident. 

Book  references.  In  a  book  reference  there  are  usually  six  items 
to  be  included.  They  should  be  arranged  in  the  following  order  : 
author  or  authors,  title,  place  of  publication,  publisher,  date  and  pages. 
If  one  or  more  of  these  items  is  not  given  in  the  publication,  the 
arrangement  of  those  remaining  should  follow  the  order  stated  above. 
The  book  references  given  below  show  the  capitalization  and  punctu- 
ation which  should  be  used.  Practices  in  regard  to  capitalization  and 
the  use  of  italics  vary.  The  name  of  the  author  or  authors  may  be 
capitalized,  or  "caps  and  small  caps"  may  be  used  as  in  the  following 
references.  In  a  typewritten  manuscript  not  intended  for  publication, 
the  names  may  appear  in  "all  caps."  The  title  of  the  book  should  be 
printed  in  italics,  when  it  appears  in  the  text  or  in  a  footnote,  but  the 
underlining  which  indicates  this  may  be  omitted  in  a  manuscript  not 
intended  for  publication.  The  title  of  a  book  is  sometimes  not  itali- 
cized in  a  lengthy  bibliography. 

Potter,  Milton  C,  Jeschke,  H.,  and  Billet,  Harry  O.  Oral  and  Written 
English,  Intermediate  Book.   Boston:  Ginn  and  Company,  1921.  270  p. 

Terman,  Louis  M.  The  Hygiene  of  the 'School  Child.  Boston: 
Houghton  Mifflin  Company,  1914,  p.  345-56. 

The  first  reference  gives  the  correct  form  for  indicating  the  entire 
,(|  number  of  pages  contained  in  a  book  while  the  second  reference  gives 


74  Bulletin  Xo.  38 

the  form  when  a  few  specific  pages  are  referred  to.  A  reference  to  a 
specific  section  of  a  book  or  bulletin  has  a  comma  after  the  date,  and 
for  this  reason  is  indicated  by  p.  —  rather  than  —  p. 

Periodical  references.  In  a  periodical  reference,  the  title  of  the 
article  is  inclosed  in  quotation  marks.  This  at  once  sets  it  off  from  a 
book  reference.  The  items  necessary  for  complete  information  should 
be  given  in  the  following  order :  author,  title,  name  in  full  of  period- 
ical,^"^ number  of  volume  in  Arabic  figures,  number  of  pages  inclusive 
on  which  article  appcars,^^  month  and  year  of  publication. 

The  publisher  of  the  periodical  is  not  included  in  the  reference; 
for  if  desired  for  purchasing  purposes  it  ma}^  easily  be  found.  The 
references  below  show  the  capitalization  and  punctuation  which  should 
be  used,  and  also  give  the  forms  for  continued  articles,  and  for  edi- 
torials. 

A  single  article : 

Fordyce,  Charles.  "Intelligence  Tests  in  Classif3'ing  Children  in  the 
Elementary  Schools,"  Journal  of  Educational  Research,  4:40-43,  June,  1921. 

An  article  continued  in  separate  volumes  of  a  periodical : 

Mead,  Cyrus  D.  "Silent  Versus  Oral  Reading  with  One  Hundred 
Sixth-Grade  Children,"  Journal  of  Educational  PsycJiologv,  6 :  345-48,  Tune, 
1915;  8:367-68,  June,  1917. 

An  article  continued  in  the  same  volume  of  a  periodical : 

Henderson,  Archibald.  "Number,  and  the  Fundamental  Laws  of  Alge- 
bra," Tlie  High  School  Journal,  4:51-53,  77-80,  171-73;  March,  April, 
December,  1921. 

An  editorial  from  a  periodical : 

Courtis,  S.  A.  "Scientific  Supervision,"  Journal  of  Educational  Re- 
search, 1:67-68,  January,  1920.    (An  editorial.) 

Monograph  and  bulletin  references.  In  addition  to  the  material 
appearing  in  books  and  periodicals,  there  is  a  large  quantity  usually 
published  by  a  university,  a  board  of  education,  or  some  other  organ- 
ized body.  This  is  called  "bulletin  material."  Usually  there  are  seven 
items  to  be  given  in  a  reference  for  a  bulletin.  These  items  are  the 
same  as  those  included  in  a  reference  to  a  book  with  the  addition  of 
certain  information  called  description,  which  includes  name,  volutne 
and  number  of  the  series  of  which  the  bulletin  is  a  part,  and  imme- 
diately follows  the  title.  The  items  should  be  arranged  in  the  follow- 
ing order:  author  or  authors,  title,  description,  place,  publisher,  date, 
and  pages.    In  case  one  or  more  of  the  items  is  not  given  in  the  publi- 


"The  name  of  a  periodical  is  italicized  the  same  as  the  title  of  a  book. 
''If  the  writer  wishes  to  refer  to  certain  pages  or  a  page  instead  of  the  entire  article, 
these  should  be  given  rather  than  the  total  inclusive  pages. 


Techniques  of  Educational  Research  75 

cation,  the  others  should  be  arranged  in  the  order  stated  above.  The 
references  of  bulletins  given  here  show  the  proper  capitalization  and 
punctuation.  All  necessary  information  concerning  the  publication 
should  be  included.  It  will  be  necessary  to  watch  closely  that  no  series, 
names  and  numbers,  volume  numbers,  and  so  forth  are  omitted. 

United  States  Bureau  of  Education  Bulletin : 

Capen,  Samuel  Paul.  "Facilities  for  Foreign  Students  in  American 
Colleges  and  Universities,"  U.  S.  Bureau  of  Educatian  Bulletin,  1920,  No. 
3P.    Washington :  Government  Printing  Office,  1920.    267  p. 

Teachers  College  Contributions  to  Education :  ^* 

Berkson,  I.  B.  "Theories  of  Americanization,"  Teachers  College,  Co- 
luinhia  University  Contributions  to  Education,  No.  109.  New  York:  Bureau 
of  Publications,  Columbia  University,  1920.   226  p. 

A  school  survey : 

"An  Educational  Survey  of  Janesville,  Wisconsin."  Madison,  Wiscon- 
sin :    State  Department  of  Public  Instruction,  1918.    226  p. 

A  school  report : 

"Annual  report,  1918-19,  Alton  Public  Schools."  Alton,  Illinois:  Board 
of  Education,  1919.    156  p. 

A  course  of  study : 

"Synopsis  of  Courses  of  Study,  1920-21,  in  Public  Schools."  Daven- 
port, Iowa :    Board  of  Education,  1920.    133  p. 

Bulletins  published  by  universities  and  other  organized  bodies : 

Aleyer,  Harold  D.  "The  Rural  Playground,"  University  of  North 
Carolina  Extension  Bulletin,  Vol.  1,  No.  6.  Chapel  Hill :  University  of 
North  Carolina,  1921.    78  p. 

Monroe,  Walter  S.  (Edited  by)"  "Studies  in  Arithmetic  1916-17," 
Indiana  University  Studies,  Vol.  5,  Bureau  of  Cooperative  Research  Study 
No.  38.   Bloomington :  Indiana  University,  1918.   40  p. 

Holly,  Chas.  E.  "Mental  Tests  for  School  Use,"  University  of  Illinois 
Bulletin,  Vol.  17,  No.  28,  Bureau  of  Educational  Research  Bulletin  No.  4. 
Urbana :  University  of  Illinois,  1920.   91  p. 

Shultis,  Frank  W.,  and  Hellman,  J.  D.  "A  Study  in  Addition,"  Colo- 
rado State  Teachers  College  Bulletin,  Series  16,  No.  3,  Research  Bulletin 
No.  1.    Greeley:  Colorado  State  Teachers  College,  1916.    16  p. 

An  article  within  a  yearbook  or  any  bound  volume : 

Baldwin,  B.  T.  "A  Measuring  Scale  for  Physical  Growth  and  Physio- 
logical Age,"  Fifteenth  Yearbook  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of 
Education,  Part  I.  Bloomington,  Illinois  :  Public  School  Publishing  Com- 
pany, 1916,  p.  20-21. 


^^The  name  of  this  series  appears  in  various  forms.  In  some  cases  a  comma  is  inserted 
after  the  word   University,  while  in  others  Columbia    University  is  omitted. 

^^If  a  reference  is  edited,  compiled  or  prepared  by  someone  in  such  a  way  that  he  can- 
not strictly  be  said  to  be  the  author,  this  fact  should  be  indicated  by  placing  a  notation  in 
parentheses  immediately  following  his  name. 


76  Bulletin  No.  38 

Miscellaneous  material  published  by  boards  of  education : 

Deamer,  Arthur.  "An  Experiment  in  Acceleration."  Fargo,  North 
Dakota :  Board  of  Education,  1918.   32  p. 

"The  Arithmetical  Abilities  of  School  Children  as  Shown  by  Courtis 
Tests,"  Board  of  Education,  Division  of  Reference  and  Research  Bulletin 
No.  1.    Cleveland,  Ohio :  Board  of  Education,  1917. 

Sexton,  Elmer  K.  "Arithmetic  Survey  in  the  Public  Schools  of  Newark, 
N.  J.,"  Board  of  Education  Monograph.  Newark,  N.  J. :  Board  of  Educa- 
tion, 1919.   30  p. 

Spain,  Charles  L.,  Moehlman,  Arthur  B.,  and  Harrington,  H.  L.  "The 
Intermediate  School  in  Detroit,"  The  Detroit  Educational  Bulletin,  Research 
Bulletin  No.  6.    Detroit :    Board  of  Education,  1921.   39  p. 

17.  Chapter  titles,  table  of  contents,  preface,  title  page,  spacing, 
order  of  paging,  paper,  and  so  forth.  The  chapter  title  should  be 
concisely  expressed  and  should  indicate  the  purpose  of  the  chapter. 
The  table  of  contents  may  be  very  simple,  consisting  of  only  the  titles 
of  the  chapters,  or  may  be  elaborate  with  subordinate  headings  and 
second  sub-headings.  No  definite  rules  regarding  the  comprehensive- 
ness of  the  table  of  contents  can  be  given.  In  such  material  as  a  thesis 
or  a  bulletin  in  which  there  is  no  index,  it  is  probably  desirable  to  list 
in  some  detail  the  divisions  and  subdivisions  of  the  different  parts  or 
chapters. 

The  preface  usually  contains  acknowledgments  of  assistance  to 
persons  who  have  given  actual  aid  in  the  preparation  of  the  manu- 
script, or  whose  books  and  other  writings  are  used  as  references.  In 
the  case  of  a  thesis  the  term  "acknowledgment"  is  often  used  instead 
of  "preface."  A  preface  should  be  simple  and  dignified,  should  give 
some  indication  of  the  audience  to  whom  it  is  addressed,  and  should 
contain  some  statements  of  the  reasons  for  the  writing  of  the  manu- 
script. 

18.  Footnotes.  Footnotes  fulfill  three  principal  fitnctions :  (1)  to 
give  a  bibliographical  reference  for  quoted  material  or  for  facts  and 
statements;  (2)  to  qualify  or  elaborate  statements  of  the  text  when 
it  is  undesirable  to  include  such  comments  in  the  body  of  the'  manu- 
script;  (3)  to  suggest  further  treatment  of  the  subject.  Footnotes  are 
apt  to  be  treated  more  carelessly  and  inconsistently  than  any  other  part 
of  the  manuscript.  They  should,  however,  receive  a  writer's  careful 
attention  in  regard  to  sentence  structure,  punctuation,  and  so  forth, 
and  especially  in  regard  to  the  form  of  bibliographical  references.  The 
illustrative  forms  given  on  p.  73fi".  should  be  followed  in  footnotes.  In 
a  formal  bibliography  it  is  customary  to  have  the  author's  name  appear 
in  capitals  and  small  capitals  and  to  indent  the  lines  following  the  first 
as  has  been  done  in  the  bibliographies  at  the  end  of  the  preceding 


Techniques  of  Educational  Research  11 

chapters  of  this  bulletin.     This  form  of  indentation  should  never  be 
used  in  footnotes. 

19.  Miscellaneous,  (a)  Abbreviations.  Abbreviations  of  words 
or  phrases  are  not  generally  considered  good  form  in  the  body  of  the 
report.  Ar^  exception  is  often  made  in  regard  to  titles  of  persons  as 
"Mr.,"  "Dr.,"  or  "Prof."  No  one  rule  can  be  given  in  this  case  but 
consistency  is  urged  both  in  the  use  and  in  the  selection  of  the  title. 
For  example,  "Dr."  should  not  be  used  in  referring  to  one  person,  and 
"Mr."  or  "Prof."  to  another  of  the  same  rank  or  position;  or  the  title 
should  not  be  given  in  one  case,  and  omitted  in  another.  Furthermore 
when  titles  are  used,  extreme  care  regarding  their  correctness  should 
be  taken.  It  may  be  said  that  "Professor"  is  usually  written  in  full, 
"Doctor"  frequently,  and  "Mister"  seldom,  if  at  all.  A  safe  and 
widely  used  method  is  to  omit  titles  altogether,  especially  if  the  person 
has  attained  prominence.  In  scholastic  circles,  however,  it  is  customary 
to  refer  to  the  president  of  an  institution  by  his  title  written  in  full. 

(b)  Division  of  words.  The  unnecessary  division  of  a  word  at 
the  end  of  a  line  should  be  avoided  if  possible.  Unless  objectionable 
spacing  results,  it  is  better  to  carry  the  whole  word  over  to  the  next 
line.  When  divisions  are  necessary,  the  following  suggestions  may 
prove  helpful. 

Words  in  general  are  divided  according  to  the  natural  divisions  in 
correct  pronunciation  as  knowl-edge,  not  know-ledge.  Acceptable 
divisions  may  be  made  before  such  terminations  as  ing,  er,  est;  imme- 
diately following  a  vowel  as  intri-cate,  mascu-line ;  or  between  the 
consonants  when  two  consonants  occur  between  two  vowels  as  inef- 
fective, inflam-mable.  In  language  other  than  English  the  most  im- 
portant rule  is  to  divide  on  the  vowel  as  far  as  possible.  If  at  all  avoid- 
able, two  consecutive  lines  should  not  terminate  in  a  hyphen. 

In  the  following  cases,  divisions  should  never  be  made :  mono- 
syllables, as  zveighf,  stopped;  two  vowels  sounded  as  one,  as  mea-dow, 
peo-ple ;  proper  names ;  initials  of  a  person's  name ;  abbreviations  as, 
Ph.D.,  A.B.;  or  numbers  expressed  either  in  Arabic  or  Roman  num- 
erals. 

(c)  Spelling  out  numbers.  In  general,  all  numbers  under  one 
hundred,  and  all  round  numbers,  as  two  thousand,  five  hundred,  and  so 
forth  should  be  spelled  out.  Decimals  as  money  and  per  cents,  numbers 
over  one  hundred  and  those  used  statistically  in  enumerations  are 
usually  written  in  figures.  Any  number,  however,  used  to  begin  a 
sentence  should  be  spelled  out. 


78  Bulletin  No.  38 

III.    DIRECTIONS   REGARDING  PREPARATION   OF 

MANUSCRIPT 

General  plan  of  report  formulated  in  an  outline  and  brief.    As  a 

rule  the  first  step  in  the  preparation  of  a  report  of  educational  research 
should  be  the  formulation  of  an  outline.  A  writer  needs  an  outline  for 
much  the  same  reason  that  a  contractor  needs  blue-prints  and  specifi- 
cations for  a  building.  The  outline  serves  as  a  guide  as  he  works  upon 
the  various  details  and  enables  him  to  stick  to  his  problem.  Although 
it  is  usually  desirable  for  a  writer  to  prepare  a  somewhat  detailed  out- 
line in  written  form,  this  should  be  followed  by  a  brief.  An  outline 
usually  consists  of  separate  words  or  short  phrases  which  announce 
the  topics  or  points  that  will  be  taken  up  in  the  report.  A  brief  does 
more  than  this ;  it  expresses  in  abbreviated  form  the  principal  state- 
ments to  be  made  on  each  sub-topic  or  point.  Illustrations  showing 
the  difference  between  an  outline  and  the  corresponding  brief  on  the 
topic,  "Written  Expression  as  a  Type  of  Learning,"  are  given  below. 

THE    OUTLINE 

I.    Relation  of  Organization  of  Ideas  to  Textbook  Reading. 

II.    Relation  of  Expression  of  Ideas  to  Learning. 
III.    Clear  Thinking  and  Expression  of  Ideas. 
lY.    The  Brief  Compared  with  an  Outline. 

V.    Making  a  Brief. 

(a)  Principal  points. 

(b)  Subordinate  points. 

(c)  Revision. 

THE    BRIEF 

I.    Organization  of  ideas  supplements  the  learning  resuUing  from  the  reading 

of  a  textbook. 
II.    Expression  of  ideas  is  an  important  learning  exercise. 

III.  Clear  thinking  is  a  prerequisite  for  effective  expression.  When  one  has 
clear  ideas  it  is  usuall}'  easy  to  express  them. 

IV.  A  brief  differs  from  an  outline  in  that  it  consists  of  phrases  or  sentences 
which  express  ideas  instead  of  merely  words  or  phrases  which  announce 
topics  about  which  something  will  be  said. 

V.    The  steps  in  making  a  brief  are: 

(a)  Clearly  define  your  purpose. 

(b)  Formulate  the  principal   and   subordinate  points   of  the  discussion   in 
complete  sentences. 

(c)  Organize    these    so    that    the}-   will    present    a    satisfactory    "trend    of 
thought." 

(d)  Test  each  statement  for  precision  and  for  its  relation  to  the  problem 
being  considered. 

A  carefully  prepared  brief  an  aid  to  writing.  A  brief  is  even 
more  helpful  to  a  writer  than  an  outline.  It  epitomizes  his  "trend  of 
thought."  In  the  making  of  a  brief,  little  writing  is  required,  and  he 
has  an  opportunity  to  conceiitrate  upon  thinking  about  the  problem. 


Techniques  of  Educational  Research  79 

Details  may  be  neglected  for  the  time  being.  A  distinct  service  which 
the  brief  renders  is  due  to  the  fact  that  it  represents  a  more  advanced 
stage  of  thinking  about  the  problem  than  the  outline. 

Criteria  for  good  writing  should  be  observed.  In  preparing  the 
first  or  working  draft  of  a  report,  all  of  the  criteria  for  good  writing 
should  be  observed  so  far  as  possible,  but  the  writer's  attention  should 
be  focused  upon  "trend  of  thought"  and  "evaluation  of  ideas."  If  a 
brief  has  been  prepared,  the  general  pattern  of  this  "trend  of  thought" 
will  have  been  formulated  but  the  details  are  filled  in  during  the  writing 
of  the  first  draft.  As  this  is  done,  the  writer  may  find  it  necessary  to 
make  changes  in  the  organization  of  the  report  in  order  to  secure  an 
effective  "trend  of  thought."  The  evaluation  of  ideas  is  one  of  the 
most  difficult  tasks  which  a  writer  encounters.  It  is  essential  to  elimi- 
nate all  irrelevant  statements  from  the  report  as  well  as  to  include 
everything  that  should  be  said. 

Paragraph  headings.  Carefully  formulated  paragraph  headings^'' 
are  now  generally  used  in  textbooks,  monographs,  and  bulletins  to 
assist  the  reader  in  getting  the  general  "trend  of  thought."  They  may 
assist  the  writer  by  providing  a  series  of  specific  ideas  for  him  to  think 
and  write  about.  If  they  are  to  fulfill  this  function,  the  writer  must 
formulate  them  before  the  following  paragraphs  are  written.  If  a 
somewhat  detailed  brief  has  been  prepared,  many  of  the  paragraph 
headings  can  be  taken  directly  from  it.  If  a  brief  has  not  been  pre- 
pared, the  formulation  of  the  paragraph  headings  should  follow  the 
preparation  of  the  outline.  They  should  not  be  thought  of  as  some- 
thing to  be  inserted  after  the  paragraphs  have  been  written.  It  is  un- 
necessary and  frequently  undesirable  to  have  a  separate  heading  for 
each  paragraph.  However,  whenever  a  new  unit  of  the  discussion  is 
taken  up,  there  should  be  a  paragraph  heading  which  indicates  to  the 
reader  the  nature  of  the  "trend  of  thought"  immediately  following  and 
its  relation  to  the  problem  being  considered. 

Formation  of  new  paragraphs.  In  writing,  a  new  paragraph 
should  be  formed  whenever  a  new  point  is  taken  up  or  the  "trend  of 
thought"  changed.  If  in  doubt  when  writing  the  first  draft  it  is  well 
to  form  a  new  paragraph,  as  combinations  can  easily  be  made  in  the 
revision. 

Order  of  writing  chapters.  In  the  case  of  a  report  consisting  of 
several  chapters,  it  is  sometimes  desirable  to  revise  the  preliminary 

'^In    printed   material   paragraph    headings    usually   appear   in    bold-face    type    as    in    this 

bulletin.     To  indicate  this  type   in  a  manuscript  a   wavy  line    ( )    is   drawn   under 

the  heading,  but  in  writing  a  report  it  is  more  convenient  merely  to  underline  the  headings. 
However,  an  author  should  have  in  mind  that  simple  underlining  indicates  italics  and  if  bold- 
face type  is  desired  in  a  printed  report  the  straight  line  must  be  changed  to  a  wavy  line 
when  the  manuscript  is  sent  to  the  printer. 


80  Bulletin  No.  38 

drafts  of  some  of  the  earlier  chapters  before  writing  the  later  ones. 
Some  chapters  even  may  be  left  incomplete  while  other  sections  of 
the  report  are  taken  up.  Some  writers  have  found  it  undesirable  to 
spend  much  time  over  tedious  details  in  the  first  draft,  because  when 
working  on  details  one  tends  to  lose  sight  of  the  general  "trend  of 
thought."  However,  there  usually  comes  a  time  when  it  is  advisable 
to  prepare  a  complete  preliminary  draft  of  the  report  in  order  that 
each  part  may  be  judged  in  its  relation  to  all  others. 

Physical  form  of  working  drafts.  In  preliminary  drafts  margins 
of  at  least  an  inch  and  a  half  should  be  left  at  the  top  and  on  the  left- 
hand  side.  The  margins  on  the  right  and  at  the  bottom  may  be  some- 
what narrower.  Some  writers  find  it  desirable  to  have  even  wider 
margins.  If  the  draft  is  typewritten,  it  should  be  double-spaced.  Only 
one  side  of  the  paper  should  be  written  on. 

All  tables  except  very  short  ones  should  be  placed  on  separate 
sheets  which  contain  no  text  so  that  they  can  be  inserted  easily  in  a 
revised  manuscript.  Failure  to  observe  this  rule  will  result  in  con- 
siderable waste  of  time  in  copying  tables.  In  order  to  facilitate  inser- 
tions and  other  changes,  it  is  wise  to  begin  each  major  division  and 
many  of  the  subordinate  divisions  on  a  new  page.  Even  in  the  case, 
of  paragraphs  it  is  usually  desirable  to  begin  a  new  page  when  the 
preceding  paragraph  ends  in  the  last  third  of  a  page.  An  exception  to 
this  suggestion  may  be  made  in  the  case  of  a  short  paragraph  which 
can  be  completed  in  the  remaining  space  on  the  page.  Sometimes  it  is 
helpful  to  leave  spaces  between  paragraphs  for  insertions. 

Correct  bibliographical  forms  should  be  observed  in  the  footnotes 
of  preliminary  drafts  of  a  manuscript.  Care  also  should  be  exercised 
to  spell  all  words  correctly  and  attention  should  be  given  to  capitaliza- 
tion, punctuation,  and  other  technical  details  of  form.  If  this  is  not 
done,  some  of  the  errors  appearing  in  the  preliminary  drafts  are  almost 
certain  to  persist  in  the  final  form  of  the  manuscript. 

The  position  of  footnotes.  In  the  working  drafts  of  a  manu- 
script, the  footnotes  should  be  indicated  by  an  asterisk  (*)  and  should 
appear  on  the  line  immediatel}"  following  that  in  which  the  reference 
is  made.  A  footnote  in  this  position  should  be  separated  from  the  text 
by  triple-spacing  or  by  horizontal  lines  drawn  immediately  above  and 
below  the  footnote.*   An  exception  to  this  rule  is  usually  made  in  the 

*For  example,  a  footnote  given  at  this  point  should  be  placed  in  this  posi- 
tion and  set  ofif  as  indicated. 

final  form  of  theses  and  other  manuscripts  not  intended  for  publica- 


Techniques  of  Edlxational  Research  81 

tion.  In  such  cases,  the  footnotes  should  be  shifted  to  the  bottom  of 
the  page  in  the  final  typing.  In  order  to  avoid  confusion  when  two  or 
more  footnotes  appear  on  a  page,  it  is  customary  to  number  them 
consecutively  throughout  each  chapter  as  has  been  done  in  this  bulletin. 
However,  some  publishers  prefer  to  number  the  footnotes  consecutively 
on  each  page. 

Final  form  of  a  report  the  product  of  revision.  A  well-written 
report  is  seldom  attained  in  the  first  draft,  even  though  a  detailed  brief 
has  been  previously  prepared.  Most  successful  writers,  even  after 
years  of  experience,  are  accustomed  to  refine  their  reports  through  a 
series  of  revisions.  Occasionally  there  is  a  writer  who  possesses  un- 
usual ability  in  organizing  and  expressing  his  ideas  and  who  for  that 
reason  is  able  to  produce  a  creditable  report  at  the  first  writing.  How- 
ever, such  persons  are  rare  and  they  probably  could  produce  better 
reports  if  they  carefully  revised  their  manuscripts. 

Application  of  criteria  for  judging  a  report,  the  basis  for  revision. 

The  process  of  revising  a  manuscript  involves  applying  the  criteria 
given  on  pages  58  to  61  and  then  making  the  changes  necessary  to 
remove  the  deficiencies  and  errors  revealed.  Thus  as  a  preliminary  to 
the  actual  work  of  revision,  a  writer  should  attempt  to  fix  these 
criteria  in  his  mind.  However,  he  should  not  seek  to  apply  all  of  them 
at  once.  Those  given  under  "general  structure,"  and  "development, 
evaluation  and  organization  of  ideas"  should  receive  attention  first,  as 
the  time  devoted  to  correcting  details  of  structure  and  form  will  be 
wasted  if  later  it  is  necessary  to  make  major  changes. 

Re-thinking  required.  A  revision  of  a  manuscript  is  not  accom- 
plished by  merely  correcting  rhetorical  and  grammatical  errors  and 
misspelled  words.  The  definition  of  the  problem  and  its  solution 
should  be  carefully  retraced  for  the  purpose  of  improving  the  "trend 
of  thought,"  the  development  and  evaluation  of  ideas,  and  the  pre- 
cision of  statement.  A  writer  should  try  to  approach  the  task  of 
revising  his  manuscript  with  the  attitude  of  a  critical  reader.  Criti- 
cizing one's  own  writing  is  difficult  because  one  is  handicapped  in 
adopting  the  impersonal  and  detached  attitude  which  is  necessary,  but 
such  criticism  is  essential  in  the  production  of  good  writing.  One 
should  therefore  cultivate  the  art  of  criticism,  particularly  with  ref- 
erence to  the  development,  evaluation  and  organization  of  ideas. 

Major  reorganizations.  Frequently  a  writer  will  find  it  necessary 
to  make  certain  major  changes.  The  order  of  certain  chapters  may 
need  to  be  interchanged.  The  position  of  a  paragraph  or  of  a  series  of 
paragraphs  may  need  to  be  shifted.     Some  paragraphs  which  were 


82  Bulletin  No.  38 

written  only  after  much  effort  may  prove  of  so  little  value  that  they 
should  be  eliminated. 

Improvement  of  sentence  structure.  Frequently  sentences  and 
even  paragraphs  need  to  be  rewritten  in  order  to  secure  more  effective 
expression.  Sometimes  the  desired  result  can  be  accomplished  by 
varying  one's  diction.  Qualifying  phrases  and  clauses  may  be  shifted, 
short  sentences  may  be  combined  and  in  other  cases  long  ones  broken 
up.  Unnecessary  shifting  of  voice,  tense  or  person  should  be  elimi- 
nated. A  writer  should  never  hesitate  to  rewrite  a  paragraph  if  he 
feels  that  he  can  improve  it.  Detailed  suggestions  for  improving  sen- 
tence structure  are  given  in  rhetoric  texts  and  manuals  for  writers. 

Correction  of  errors.  The  final  step  in  revising  a  manuscript  is 
to  correct  all  remaining  errors  of  grammar,  spelling  and  punctuation. 
Much  of  this  work  will  have  been  done  in  the  preceding  stages  of  the 
revision,  but  there  should  be  a  final  going  over  of  the  entire  manu- 
script for  the  purpose  of  eliminating  errors  of  any  kind. 

Economy  of  time  in  revision.  The  several  phases  of  the  work 
of  revising  the  manuscript  should  be  taken  up  in  the  order  in  which 
they  have  been  presented  in  the  preceding  discussion.  As  we  have 
already  indicated,  time  is  likely  to  be  wasted  if  some  of  the  later 
phases  are  undertaken  before  the  major  changes  have  been  made. 

A  writer  should  not  consume  time  in  unnecessary  copying.  Fre- 
quently scissors  and  paste  can  be  used  to  advantage  in  making  changes 
in  the  order  of  a  report.  Corrections  can  be  written  between  the  lines 
and  on  the  margins.  Insertions  can  be  placed  on  separate  pages  with 
appropriate  indications  of  their  positions.  It  is  a  waste  of  time  to 
copy  a  manuscript  before  a  fresh  draft  is  needed.  However,  when  a 
critical  reading  of  the  manuscript  is  made  difficult  or  impossible  be- 
cause the  changes  in  it  are  distracting  or  confusing,  the  entire  manu- 
script, except  whole  pages  which  are  unmutilated,  should  be  copied  in 
t}'pewritten  form  if  possible.  A  fresh  manuscript  often  will  stimulate 
a  writer  to  higher  levels  of  effectiveness  in  his  writing. 

IV.    GENERAL  DIRECTIONS  REGARDING  FINAL  FORM 
OF  MANUSCRIPT 

Title  page.^^    The  title  of  the  manuscript  should  be  written  in  all 

capitals  and  should  be  placed  two  inches  or  more  below  the  top  of  the 

page.    The  author's  name  should  appear  in  full,  placed  below  the  title. 


''In  the  final  typing  of  a  thesis  or  of  a  report  any  rules  prescribed  by  the  college  or  by 
the  department  should  be  carefully  followed.  The  directions  listed  here  are  representative  of 
good  form  and  should  be  observed  except  in  those  cases  where  they  conflict  with  institutional 
requirements. 


Techniques  of  Educational  Research  83 

and  usually  preceded  by  the  word  "By"  written  just  above.  On  the 
line  below  the  author's  name,  his  institutional  connection  and  rank  are 
often  given.  In  a  thesis,  previous  degrees,  institutions,  and  dates 
should  be  listed.  In  a  term  paper,  the  title  and  the  author's  name 
should  be  given  as  in  the  description  above ;  the  names  of  the  course 
and  instructor  in  charge  may  be  added,  preferably  on  lines  near  the 
bottom  of  the  page. 

Table  of  contents.  When  a  report  is  divided  into  chapters  with 
titles,  there  should  be  a  table  of  contents  which  gives  the  chapter  titles 
preceded  by  the  Roman  numerals  I,  II,  III,  and  so  forth.  When 
subordinate  headings  are  given,  they  should  be  indented  and  may  be 
numbered  by  Arabic  figures  or  by  capital  letters.  In  case  there  are 
second  sub-headings,  further  indentation  should  be  used  and  the  num- 
bering may  be  done  by  means  of  letters  a,  b,  c,  and  so  forth,  or  by 
Arabic  figures  enclosed  in  parentheses.  The  plan  of  numbering  in  the 
table  of  contents  should  be  the  same  as  that  observed  in  the  manuscript. 
When  a  report  is  not  formally  divided  into  chapters,  it  is  frequently 
desirable  to  give  a  brief  description  of  the  contents.  In  all  cases,  the 
table  of  contents  should  appear  alone  upon  the  page  or  even  upon 
successive  pages.  If  brief,  it  should  be  so  placed  as  to  give  approxi- 
mately equal  spacing  above  and  below  the  written  material. 

List  of  illustrations,  figures  or  tables.  The  list  of  illustrations 
or  figures  should  give  the  titles  of  the  illustrations  preceded  by  the 
numbers  in  Arabic  as  1,  2,  3 ;  the  list  of  tables  should  give  the  captions 
of  the  tables  preceded  by  the  Roman  numerals  as  I,  II.  In  case  a 
manuscript  includes  illustrations,  figures  and  tables,  separate  lists 
should  be  given  for  each. 

Spacing.  The  paper  should  be  of  ordinary  weight,  of  uniform 
size,  8^  by  11  inches,  and  only  one  side  should  be  used  for  writing. 
The  text  proper  should  be  double-spaced.  Quoted  material  appearing 
in  a  separate  paragraph  may  be  single-spaced.  The  left-hand  margin 
should  be  from  an  inch  to  an  inch  and  one-half.  The  right-hand  mar- 
gin may  be  somewhat  narrower.^®  The  first  line  of  a  new  paragraph 
should  be  indented  at  least  one  inch. 

First  page  of  text.  The  first  page  of  the  text  may  or  may  not 
contain  the  title  of  the  manuscript.  If  the  title  is  given  it  should  be  in 
capitals,  and  should  be  dropped  about  two  inches  from  the  top  of  the 
page.      The   word    "Chapter,"    all   capitals,    followed   by   the    Roman 


'*In  preliminary  drafts  of  a  manuscript  it  is  well  to  have  both  margins  somewhat  wider. 
Some  writers  have  found  it  desirable  to  triple-space  the  text  in  order  to  provide  space  for 
insertions  and  corrections. 


UNIVERSmr  OF  ILLINOIS-URBANA 


3  0112  070071508 


